Thinking About Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior Charles T. Blair-Broeker Randal M. Ernst

Memory Chapter 08

Information Processing Module 18

The Information-Processing Model Module 18: Information Processing

Amazing Memory Play “A Super-Memorist Advises on Study Strategies” (9:57) Module #20 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Information Processing Model Encoding - getting information into the memory system Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

Memory Play “What Is Memory?” (3:10) Segment #13 from Psychology: The Human Experience.

Encoding: Automatic and Effortful Processing Module 18: Information Processing

Automatic Processing The unconscious encoding of some information without effort Usually information on space, time and frequency

Effortful Processing Encoding that requires attention and a conscious deliberate effort The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.

Rehearsal The conscious repetition of information in order to encode it The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.

Rehearsal and Retention (From Baddeley, 1982)

Memory and the Brain Play “Remembering What Matters” (8:30) Segment #16 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2nd edition).

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

Overlearning Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned Rehearsing past the point of mastery Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

Encoding: Serial Position Effect Module 18: Information Processing

Serial Position Effect The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Encoding: Spacing Effect Module 18: Information Processing

Spacing Effect The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice

Distributed Practice Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time Usually enhances the recalling of the information

Massed Practice Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) Not as effective as distributed practice

Encoding: Encoding Meaning Module 18: Information Processing

Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

Semantic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Acoustic Encoding Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

Acoustic Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Visual Encoding Encoding information based on the images of the information

Visual Encoding (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Self-Reference Effect The enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

Encoding: Encoding Imagery Module 18: Information Processing

Encoding: Mnemonic Devices Module 18: Information Processing

Mnemonic Device A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale “People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

Method of Loci A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places

Peg-Word System A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Encoding: Organizing Information Module 18: Information Processing

Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

Module 18: Information Processing Storage Module 18: Information Processing

Three Storage Systems Three distinct storage systems : Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) Long-Term Memory

Storage: Sensory Memory Module 18: Information Processing

Sensory Memory The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system Iconic store – visual information Echoic store – sound information Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Storage: Short-Term Memory Module 18: Information Processing

Short-Term Memory Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed Also called “working memory”

Storage: Long-Term Memory Module 18: Information Processing

Long-Term Memory The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Holds memories without conscious effort

Flashbulb Memory A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event

Flashbulb Memory Play “Flashbulb Memories” (3:54) Segment #14 from Psychology: The Human Experience.

Storage: Memory and the Brain Module 18: Information Processing

Long-Term Potentiation An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency Believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory

Memory and the Brain Play “The Locus of Learning and Memory” (6:28) Module #16 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Storage: Explicit and Implicit Memories Module 18: Information Processing

Explicit Memory Memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously retrieve and declare Processed through the hippocampus

Explicit Memories

Explicit Memories

Implicit Memory Memory of skills and procedures that are retrieved without conscious recollection Processed through the cerebellum

Implicit Memories

Implicit Memories

Memory and the Hippocampus Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories

Memory and the Hippocampus

Memory Play “True or False?” (9:00) Segment #17 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2nd edition).

Hippocampus and Memory Play “Living with Amnesia: The Hippocampus and Memory” (10:35) Module #18 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Module 18: Information Processing Retrieval Module 18: Information Processing

Retrieval The process of getting information out of memory storage Two forms of retrieval Recall Recognition

Recall A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short answer test questions test recall

Recognition A measure of memory in which a person must identify items learned earlier Multiple choice and matching test questions test recognition

Module 18: Information Processing Retrieval: Context Module 18: Information Processing

Context Effect The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information

Context

Retrieval: State Dependency Module 18: Information Processing

State Dependent Memory The enhanced ability to retrieve information when the person is in the same physical and emotional state they were in when they encoded the information The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

Lack of Explicit Memories Insert “Clive Wearing – Living Without Memory” Video #25 from Worth’s Digital Media Archive for Psychology. Instructions for importing the video file can be found in the ‘Readme’ file on the CD-ROM.

Lack of Explicit Memories Play “Life Without Memory: The Case of Clive Wearing, Part I” (12:35) Segment #10 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

Lack of Explicit Memory Play “Clive Wearing, Part 2: Living Without Memory” (32:35) Segment #11 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd edition).

The End