Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics The good = what all things aim at We study Ethics, not merely to know, but to attain the good & to live good lives

The Good for Man = Eudaimonia complete, sufficient a fulfilling human life human ergon = think on/lead a good life = a teleological ethics Defn = “rational activity with virtue” focused on the goal = how to make my life good/fulfilling?

Major Claims Ethics = quest for the good The good = happiness-in-rational activity Possible to attain in a life of virtuous activities together with friends

Contrasting ethical theories Ancient: Relativism Universalism ‘Command’ theories Divine Command Polis laws Hedonism Eudaimonist Socrates?/Stoics: virtue alone = happiness Callicles: dominance = virtue = happiness Modern Relativism Existentialism (authenticity-ethics) Universalism Deontology (Kant: categorical imperative) Utilitarianism (Mill: the greater good)

Contrasting Ethical Claims ARISTOTELIANS: vs. KANTIANS Ethics = ideal way of life, not principles of action C.I. does not work Justice = constitutive of happiness Self-fulfillment in virtue, even in e.g. war vs. UTILITARIANS Pleasure = subjective aspect of good Good is happiness, not pleasure Self-sacrifice for “greater good” may not be just; but may be for “enlarged self” KANTIANS Categorical Imperative  Universal Moral Rules Possible conflict bet. Moral duty vs. Happiness Virtue = means to Duty, not ends UTILITARIANS Utility /Greatest Good = Highest ethical principle Good = pleasure or greatest happiness Conflict bet. personal happiness vs. greater good (including others)

Virtue (arete) Virtues of character (moral virtues) Moral Stages: Mature, rational person Chooses own goals, values Moral + intellectual virtue Maturing self Obedient to moral guidance, sense of honor Moral-behavioral ‘virtues’ Immature ego Acts on impulse/feelings Opposes morals Moral Ed changes: immature ego  moral self  rational person Virtues of character (moral virtues) Courage Temperance Justice Virtues of mind (intellectual virtues) Practical wisdom (phronesis) Philosophical wisdom (sophia) Interpersonal virtue: Friendship (philia)

Moral development Actions Virtue involves: Knowing the act Voluntary vs. coerced, done in ignorance Chosen  “habits of choice,” character Virtue involves: Knowing the act Choosing it for its own sake A consistent state of character

Freedom and Responsibility (III.5) Aristotle: If you know the particulars and You are not coerced then You are responsible, even if you don’t deliberately choose to do it. But if actions arise from character, and it from how we are raised, are we really “free”? Aristotle’s reply: Either we are co-responsible Or, if not, we must still reward and punish to bring out what is better

Definition of Moral Virtue (II.6) A habit or state of character that expresses a choice Which finds a mean relative to us As determined by rational principle, ie. guided by values a morally wise person would see are at stake

The Doctrine of the Mean Virtue (of character) involves striking a mean between extremes of action and passion. Excess: having too much of something Deficiency: having too little of something. The mean is not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.

Deficiency VIRTUE Excess Cowardice VIRTUE COURAGE Excess Rashness Self-indulgent (drunken, glutton, promiscuous) TEMPERANCE (healthy moderation) Anhedonic (incapable of enjoying pleasure) Cheapness GENEROSITY Wastefulness Self-Shame, Servility (low self-esteem) PROPER PRIDE (& high ambition) Arrogance, Vanity (bloated self-esteem) Exploitative (covetous, dominator) JUSTICE (fair-mindedness) (Altruistic)

Virtue and Self-Control Aristotle contrasts: Self-controlled or continent people, who have unruly desires but manage to control them, guided by good judgment (right reason). Temperate people, whose reason and desires have become harmonized—second-nature—and choose that which is good for them. Weakness of will (akrasia) occurs when right-thinking people cannot keep their desires under control. (Discussed in Bk VII.)

Courage and Cowardice courage involves mastering fear courage = willing to give your life for the good you value no freedom without courage

Temperance vs. Intemperance Temperate choose “mean”, willingly limit your pleasures enjoy temperance Self-indulgent E.g. drunkenness, promiscuity virtue = freely act within limits vice = “enslaving”

Justice and Fairness Virtues of Justice = 2 Forms of Justice Obeying the Law Fairness = willingly giving other his due 2 Forms of Justice Distributive Corrective 2 Norms of Justice Conventional Natural

Distributive vs. Corrective Justice Distributive = giving or taking of goods or evils fairly to others, i.e. according to proportionality by merit*/desert *what constitutes ‘merit’ may vary with situation & call for judgment, esp. where participants are ‘unequal’ in their situation Corrective = restoration of ‘equality’* between individuals where one has wrongfully injured the other *here the differences in merit between the individuals is irrelevant; the ‘superior’ has no more right to harm the ‘inferior’ than vice-versa

Conventional vs. Natural Justice Natural Right = Justice according to the laws/actions that fulfill human nature, relative* to wise judgment *These will reflect the ideal vision of a humanly fulfilling society with a realistic appraisal of what can best be attained at the time Conventional Right = Justice according to law or the prevailing norms of the society* *These will be at least partly in conformity to natural right, but may be distorted: e.g. laws under conditions of tyranny or oligarchy or communism or other societies that do not value genuine merit

Sub-category of fairness: honesty Virtue of Honesty = Obeying the rules of the game Fairness = willingly giving the other (competitor) his due Act of honesty Done consciously Choose for own sake Act of character Relation to other virtues PRIDE: Self-respect, high-mindedness, integrity PRACTICAL WISDOM: True v. false self-presentation (vs. ‘cleverness’, self-deception) FRIENDSHIP with self, others HAPPINESS in genuine accomplishment NOTE: honesty implies either (i) other-directed sense of honor & shame (pre-adult virtue) or (ii) personal sense of honor & principle (adult virtue)

Virtues of the Mind Practical Wisdom Theoretical Wisdom Art e.g. sculptor, doctor Makes particular useful things They wouldn’t otherwise exist Science e.g. chemist Deduces from necessary, universal laws Not concerned with particular things/events Intuitive Reason = Realizes principles/facts are ‘ultimate’ Recognizes principles in practical situations Practical Wisdom Deliberative skill re: means Right values (ends) Self-knowledge Unity of Virtue Theoretical Wisdom Logic, Physics, Ethics Vision of “God”

Moral Knowledge is like Art (techne, craft) Goal-oriented Perception of, feel for the situation (nous) Brings about useful, noble particulars, which otherwise don’t exist Grounded in desire, not cognition ‘Truth-in-action’ more than in logos Science (episteme) Truth-revealing Awareness of universal principles, human nature Skill in deliberation and reasoning Involves knowledge of self, others Particulars exemplify universal values

Weakness of Will Socrates: “No one can know the good and not choose it.” Common view: “People can know what they should do, but still choose not to do it.” PARADOX: How can you choose to do what you know is not good for you? Who knows? Who is choosing? Compare: how is self-deception possible?

Aristotle’s Solution “One can have general knowledge but, moved by passion, not apply it.” PARADOXES: Chronic weak-willed do not “choose” Chronic weak-willed not = “one self” SOLUTION: vs. Socrates: ‘abstract knowledge’ is possible; ‘knowing’ is not = doing. vs. Common sense: Cannot ‘know’ in situ and still choose bad ‘voluntary doing’ is not = choosing Person can lack ‘moral self-unity’

What is Self-Love? Is it good or bad? Self-love based on virtue is good We should love ourselves, be “caretakers” of our virtue and well-being (compare Apology 30b) Care of our psyche will involve care of our ‘works’ (theoretical and practical), but value process/virtue over outcome/success

“Art” of Self-Care? Socratic theme Central value = integrity Self-friendship = preserving ethical balance in midst of actions, emotions Phronesis “evaluates” life’s opportunities with good reasoning right values (justice, noble beauty) concept of ‘full life’

True Self-Love Self-care, self-respect (proper pride) Having good goals (wisdom) Sticking to goals (courage, temperance) Acting to promote flourishing in yourself, others (justice, friendship)

Friendship (filia) Friendships of utility pleasure virtue Friendship = bridges egoism / altruism True friendship based in self-love “expands the self”

Is Altruism Possible? ARISTOTLE Friendships: most egoistic = based on pleasure/utility Perfect friendship Based on virtue mutual recognition Non-competitive includes pleasure, utility Friend is “other self” Self is “expanded self” Friendship & Egoism bridges gap between egoism and altruism Even “self-sufficient” virtuous person needs friends Ethical egoism = seek good for oneself. Altruism = do good for another (for their sake) Counterexamples: sacrifice for child, friend who betrays Still do it? Friendships = alliances for mutual benefit or emotional attachments (temporary? long-lasting?)

The Good Life and Politics subjective vs. objective good pleasure/joyfulness vs. happiness/flourishing 2 forms of “the good life” contemplative (theoria) Vision of God Perfect happiness active (praxis) Imperfect happiness Necessary & good

Puzzle: What is the Telos? Dominant End Goal = activities aiming at  truth; or  liberty and justice Life-actions are subordinated to one great goal Fulfillment in goal-achievement Inclusive End Goal = inclusive balance of goods within a form of life Self e.g. politician, business, family life, physical life Performative balance in a good life Which is Aristotle?

Answers to Skeptics To Egoists and ‘Immoralists’: why be moral? A: No one can find peace and fulfillment without a rational, friendly relation to others. To Hedonists: A: virtues and even external goods are not good b/c they are pleasurable, but are truly enjoyable b/c they are good (=conducive to rational flourishing, fulfillment) To Relativists: A: some individuals’ and some societies’ ethics are more deeply fulfilling of human nature than others (the fact people disagree does not mean there is not a true answer to the question) To Pluralists: A: some individuals’ lives are more fulfilling than others (the life of the mind and the life of politics are fully satisfying in ways that a life of art, or a life of business and family are not; yet many contemporary Aristotelians reject this, and the dominant end model of life)

Aristotle’s Politics I rejects Republic as contrary to “natural law” —humans by nature desire/need: Family life Property of their own Share in governing themselves (except for “natural slaves”)

Aristotle’s Politics II: rule by philosopher-kings impossible; men need the rule of law GOOD GOVTS Constitutional Monarchy Constitutional Aristocracy Constitutional Republic; blends other forms BAD GOVTS Tyranny = rule by fear (lawless) Oligarchy = govt by the rich Democracy = rule by working class (least bad)