Chapter 1: Introduction to Scientific Thinking

Chapter Outline Science as a method of knowing The scientific method Other methods of knowing The goals of science Approaches in acquiring knowledge Distinguishing science from pseudoscience Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Science as a Method of Knowing The word science comes from the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge Science is specifically the acquisition of knowledge using the scientific method The scientific method requires the use of systematic techniques Each method or design comes with a specific set of assumptions and rules that make it scientific Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 1: Identify a Problem (1) Determine an area of interest (2) Review the literature (3) Identify new ideas in your area of interest (4) Develop a research hypothesis Step 1: Identify a Problem Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 2: Develop a research plan (1) Define the variables being tested Operational definition: Defines how each variable is measured (2) Identify participants or subjects and determine how to sample them Step 2: Develop a research plan Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 2: Develop a research plan Population: Set of all individuals, items, or data of interest about which scientists will generalize Sample: Set of selected individuals, items, or data taken from a population of interest Step 2: Develop a research plan Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 2: Develop a research plan (3) Select a research strategy or design The plan will largely depend on how variables are defined (4) Evaluate ethics and obtain institutional approval to conduct research Step 2: Develop a research plan Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 3: Conduct the study The goal is to execute a research plan by conducting the study Step 3: Conduct the study Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 4: Analyze and evaluate the data (1) Analyze and evaluate the data as they relate to the research hypothesis Data (plural): Measurements or observations that are typically numeric Step 4: Analyze and evaluate the data Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 4: Analyze and evaluate the data (2) Summarize data and report the research results Data are often reported in tables or graphically Statistical outcomes are reported using guidelines from the American Psychological Association (APA) Step 4: Analyze and evaluate the data Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 5: Communicate the results (1) Method of communication Communicating work allows other professionals to review your work, learn what you did, test whether they can replicate results, or use the study to generate new ideas Most typical ways to share results of a study are oral, written, or as a poster Step 5: Communicate the results Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 5: Communicate the results (2) Style of communication Written research reports must conform to the style and formatting guidelines provided in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) Step 5: Communicate the results Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 6: Generate more new ideas When the study is complete, publish the work and allow other researchers the opportunity to review and evaluate findings If support for research is found, refine and expand on existing knowledge If support for research is not found, propose a new idea and begin again Step 6: Generate more new ideas Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Scientific Method Step 6: Generate more new ideas Steps 1 to 6 of the scientific process are cyclic, not linear Step 6: Generate more new ideas Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Other Methods of Knowing There are several nonscientific ways of knowing. Five common nonscientific ways of knowing are described here Tenacity – Method of knowing based largely on habit or superstition It is a belief that exists because it has always been accepted E.g. Finding penny heads up brings good luck Disadvantage: Knowledge can be inaccurate Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Other Methods of Knowing Intuition – Method of knowing based largely on an individual’s hunch or feeling that something is correct E.g. Students may use their intuition to choose a major that fits their interests Disadvantage: No definitive basis for the belief Intuition has some value in science Researchers can use intuition to some extent when developing a research hypothesis In science, researchers’ intuition is then tested using the scientific method Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Other Methods of Knowing Authority – Method of knowing accepted as fact because it was stated by an expert or respected source in a particular subject area E.g. Health agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) often create regulations that most Americans will trust without ever questioning them Disadvantage: Knowledge is often accepted without question Authority has value in science E.g. Many scientists will selectively submit their research for publication in only the most authoritative journals Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Other Methods of Knowing Rationalism – Method of knowing that requires the use of reasoning and logic E.g. If a spouse is unfaithful to a partner, the partner may reason that the spouse does not love him or her Disadvantage: Often leads to erroneous conclusions Rationalism has some value in science Researchers can use rationalism to develop research hypotheses, then subject their hypothesis to the rigor of the scientific method Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Other Methods of Knowing Empiricism – Method of knowing based on one’s experiences or observations Reflects the adage “seeing is believing” Disadvantage: Prone to bias because not everyone experiences the world in the same way One way to correct for empiricism is to operationally define variables observed in terms of how the observed variable is measured Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

The Goals of Science The four goals of science serve to direct scientists toward a comprehensive knowledge of the behaviors and events they observe Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge Basic Research – Uses the scientific method to answer questions that address theoretical issues about fundamental processes and underlying mechanisms related to the behaviors and events being studied Whether there are practical applications for the outcomes is not as important as whether the research builds upon existing theory Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge Applied Research – Uses the scientific method to answer questions concerning practical problems with potential practical solutions Focuses on problems with immediate practical implications in order to apply their findings to problems that have the potential for immediate action Topics of interest include issues related to obesity and health, traffic laws and safety, behavioral disorders, and drug addiction We can use what is learned in theory (basic research) and apply it to practical situations (applied research) or we can test how practical solutions to a problem (applied research) fit with the theories we use to explain that problem (basic research) Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge Quantitative Research – Uses the scientific method to record observations as numeric data Most research conducted in the behavioral sciences is quantitative because the data are numeric allowing for a more objective analysis of the observations made in a study E.g. A researcher may define fear as the time (in seconds) it takes to walk through a scary portion of campus. By defining fear as a number (seconds), the analysis is more objective. Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Approaches in Acquiring Knowledge Qualitative Research – Uses the scientific method to make nonnumeric observations, from which conclusions are drawn without the use of statistical analysis E.g. A researcher studying attraction may interview a small group of participants about their experiences with attraction. Each participant is allowed to respond however he or she wants. From this, the researcher will look at how participants described attraction in order to interpret and explain what attraction is. Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Pseudoscience is Not Science are not scientific, and are part of a system or set of beliefs that try to deceptively create the impression that the knowledge gained represents the “final say” or most reliable knowledge on its subject matter Pseudoscience is a set of procedures that: Being able to delineate science from pseudoscience can be difficult, and the demarcation between science and pseudoscience is often a subject of debate among philosophers and scientists alike. Privitera, Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 2nd Edition. SAGE Publications, 2017.