Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

Civilization Defined Urban Political/military system Social stratification Economic specialization Religion Communications “Higher culture”

Mesopotamia “Between the Rivers” Modern-day Iraq Tigris and Euphrates Modern-day Iraq Cultural continuum of “fertile crescent” Sumerians the dominant people

The Wealth of the Rivers Nutrient-rich silt Key: irrigation Necessity of coordinated efforts Promoted development of local governments City-states Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 B.C.E. By 5000 B.C.E., complex irrigation networks Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 B.C.E. Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture

Sumerian City-States Cities appear 4000 B.C.E. Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E. Ziggurat home of the god Uruk Irrigation systems Defense from nomadic marauders Absolute monarchies

The Ziggurat of Ur

Political Decline of Sumer Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow Sumer Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.) Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based in Akkad Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.) Improved taxation, legislation Used local governors to maintain control of city-states Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E.

Legal System Code of Hammurabi Established high standards of behavior and stern punishment for violators Lex talionis – “law of retaliation” Social status and punishment

Later Mesopotamian Empires Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign invaders Assyrians use new iron weaponry Beginning 1300 B.C.E., by eighth to seventh centuries B.C.E. control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of Egypt Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (605-562) takes advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) empire Famously luxurious capital Nebuchadnezzar by William Blake

Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.

Technological Development in Mesopotamia Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E. Military, agricultural applications Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E. Cheaper than bronze Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E. Shipbuilding increases trade networks

Social Classes Ruling classes based often on military prowess Perceived as offspring of gods Religious classes Role: intervention with gods to ensure good fortune for community Considerable landholdings, other economic activities Free commoners Peasant cultivators Some urban professionals Slaves Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors

Patriarchal Society Men as landowners, relationship to status Patriarchy: “rule of the father” Right to sell wives, children Double standard of sexual morality Women drowned for adultery Relaxed sexual mores for men Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E.

Development of Writing Sumerians experiment with pictographs 2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped” Preservation of documents on clay Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek alphabetic script

Uses for Writing Trade Astronomy Mathematics Calculation of time Agricultural applications Calculation of time 12-month year 24-hour day, 60-minute hour

Mesopotamian Literature Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 B.C.E. Heroic saga Search for meaning, especially the afterlife This-worldly emphasis

The Early Hebrews According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E. Parallels between early biblical texts, code of Hammurabi Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to Palestine, ca. 1300 B.C.E. On-going conflict with indigenous populations King David (1000-970 B.C.E.) and Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)

Moses and Monotheism Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other Mesopotamian civilizations Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single god Denied existence of competing parallel deities Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity with revealed law The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”)

Foreign Conquests of Israel Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E. Conquered the northern kingdom Deported many inhabitants to other regions Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E. Destroyed Jerusalem Forced many into exile Israelites maintained their religious identity and many returned to Judea

Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.

The Phoenicians City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000 B.C.E. Extensive maritime trade Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E. Development of alphabet symbols Simpler alternative to cuneiform Spread of literacy

Indo-European Migrations Common roots of many languages of Europe, southwest Asia, India Implies influence of a single Indo-European people Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E. Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian weaponry allowed them to spread widely

Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.

Implications of Indo-European Migration Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900 B.C.E., later dominate Babylonia Influence on trade Horses, chariots with spoked wheels Iron Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also significant