Chapter 17 الباب السابع عشر Plants, Fungi, and the Colonization of Land النباتات والفطريات واستعمار اليابسة Lecture by Joan Sharp Translated by Nabih A. Baeshen

السكاكر المنتجة بواسطة النبات يتغذي عليها الفطريات Introduction: Plants and Fungi—A Beneficial Partnership مقدمة : النباتات والفطريات – شراكة منفعة Plants and fungi colonized land together استعمرت النباتات والفطريات اليابسة معا Mycorrhizae, mutually beneficial associations of plant roots and fungi hyphae, enabled plants to colonize land الميكورازيا ” جذر فطري “ عبارة عن علاقة تبادل المنفعة بين جذور النبات والخيوط الفطرية, والتي مكنت النبات من استعمار اليابسة Mycorrhizal fungi absorb water, phosphorus, and other minerals from soil and make them available to the plant يمتص الميكورازيا الماء والفسفور ومعادن أخرى من التربة ويجعلها متاحة للنبات The sugars produced by the plant nourish the fungus السكاكر المنتجة بواسطة النبات يتغذي عليها الفطريات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mycorrhizal cross section قطاع عرضي في الميكورازيا Ectomycorrhizae (Boletus) on Red Pine roots (Pinus resinosa) ميكورازيا خارجية (بوليتس) على جذور الصنوبر الأحمر

PLANT EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY تطور وتنوع النبات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة 500 million years ago, the algal ancestors of plants formed a green carpet on the edge of lakes and coastal salt marshes قبل 500 مليون سنة كونت الأسلاف الطحلبية للنبات البساط الأخضر على أطراف البحيرات وسواحل المستنقعات المالحة Green algae called charophytes are the closest living relatives of plants الطحالب الخضراء المسماة بالحزازيات الصخرية هي أقرب الأقارب الأحياء للنباتات Clarify to your students that modern charophytes and plants share a common ancestor, but modern charophytes are not the direct ancestors of plants. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. 2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused. Teaching Tips 1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17. 2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged. 3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible. 4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources. 5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Coleochaete, a simple charophyte كوليوشيت ، من الحزازيات الصخرية البسيطة Figure 17.1B Chara, an elaborate charophyte. Chara, an elaborate charophyte الكارا ، طحلب أخضر متعدد الخلايا

17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة Land plants are a clade, defined by a set of derived characters نباتات اليابسة عبارة عن فرع تشعبي, يمكن تعريفها بمجموعة من صفات التفريع Alternation of haploid and diploid generations تعاقب أجيال العدد الأحادي والثنائي للكروموزومات Walled spores produced in sporangia جراثيم جدارية يتم انتاجها في محافظ جرثومية Male and female gametangia محافظ مشيجية مذكرة ومؤنثة Multicellular, dependent sporophyte embryos أجنة متعددة الخلايا ، معتمدة على النبات الجرثومي Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. 2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused. Teaching Tips 1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17. 2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged. 3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible. 4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources. 5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

توفر الحياة على اليابسة فرصاً جديدة 17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة Life on land offered new opportunities توفر الحياة على اليابسة فرصاً جديدة Unlimited sunlightأشعة الشمس اللامحدودة Abundant CO2وفرة ثاني اُكسيد الكربون Initially, few pathogens or herbivores ومنذ البداية ، كانت هناك ندرة للُمُرضات ”التي تسبب المرض للنبات“ وآكلات الأعشاب Challenges of terrestrial lifeتحديات الحياة على اليابسة Maintaining moisture within cells الحفاظ على الرطوبة (الماء) داخل الخلايا Obtaining resources from soil and airالحصول على الاحتياجات اللازمة من التربة والهواء Supporting body in air دعم الجسم في الهواء Reproducing and dispersing offspring without water التكاثر ونشر الذرية دون الحاجة للماء Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. 2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused. Teaching Tips 1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17. 2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged. 3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible. 4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources. 5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Comparing the terrestrial adaptations of moss, fern, and pine with Chara, a multicellular green مقارنة التكيف البري للحزازيات والسرخسيات والصنوبر بالكارا, طحلب أخضر متعدد الخلايا Key Vascular Tissue أنسجة وعائية Pollen حبة لقاح Leafورقة Spores جراثيم Spores جراثيم Flagellated Sperm خلية منوية سوطي Seed بذرة Flagellated Sperm خلية منوية سوطي Alga Water supports alga. Whole alga performs photo- synthesis; absorbs water, CO2, and minerals from water. Leaf ورقة Stem جذع Lea fورقة Stem جذع Rootsجذور Fern Stomata; roots anchor plants, absorb water; lignified cell walls; vascular tissue; fertilization requires moisture Roots جذور Stem جذع Rootsجذور Moss Stomata only on sporophytes; primitive roots anchor plants, no lignin; no vascular tissue; fertilization requires moisture Figure 17.1C Comparing the terrestrial adaptations of moss, fern, and pine with Chara, a multicellular green. Flagellated Sperm خلية منوية سوطية Pine tree Stomata; roots anchor plants, absorb water; lignified cell walls; vascular tissue; fertilization does not require moisture Holdfast (anchors alga) أشباه جذور (تثبت الطحلب) الطحالب : الماء يدعم الطحلب ، يقوم الطحلب بأكمله بالبناء الضوئي ، يمتص الماء وثاني أكسيد الكربون والمعادن من الماء الحزازيات: ثغور فقط في النبات الجرثومي: جذور بدائية تثبت النبات: لا يوجد لجنين أو انسجة وعائية ، التخصيب يحتاج رطوبة السرخسيات: ثغور: جذور تثبت النبات و تمتص الماء جدر خلوية مدعمة باللجنين ، انسجة وعائية ، التخصيب يحتاج رطوبة شجرة الصنوبر: ثغور: جذور تثبت النبات و تمتص الماء جدر خلوية مدعمة باللجنين ، انسجة وعائية ، التخصيب لا يحتاج رطوبة

17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land يمتلك النبات تكيفات للمعيشة على اليابسة In all plants, the zygote develops into an embryo while attached to and nourished by the parent plant في كل النباتات تتطور اللاقحة إلى جنين أثناء اتصاله وتغذيته بواسطة النبات الأبوي Plants are embryophytes, with multicellular, dependent embryos النباتات عبارة عن نباتات ذات أجنة، متعددة الخلايا وتعتمد على النبات الجرثومي Clarify to your students that natural selection is not a goal-directed process. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. 2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused. Teaching Tips 1. Assign your students to work in small groups and list the demands of living on land versus in water. Having them consider the challenges that plants faced when they moved onto land prepares them for the discussion of the resulting adaptations in Chapter 17. 2. Water lilies and whales are two aquatic organisms that evolved from recent terrestrial ancestors. Students might contemplate the changes in these organisms as they returned to the aquatic environment from which their ancestors emerged. 3. Point out to your students that in an aquatic environment, resources such as nutrients and water are accessible to the entire plant. However, structural adaptations such as roots and shoots have evolved in plants that live on land, where such resources are less accessible. 4. Consider the analogy between vascular systems in plants and a major interstate highway, with traffic running in opposite directions. Highways, like vascular tissues, permit the widespread distribution of concentrated resources. 5. Have your students discuss the specific advantages of similar adaptations in the reproductive systems of plants and mammals. What are the advantages to keeping the developing embryos with the parent? (One example: The embryonic environment can be carefully regulated by the parent and the parent can better protect the young from damage, disease, or predation.) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

هناك أربعة مفاتيح تكيفية للحياة على اليابسة تميز المسارات 17.2 Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom يعكس التنوع النباتي التاريخ التطوري للمملكة النباتية Four key adaptations for life on land distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom هناك أربعة مفاتيح تكيفية للحياة على اليابسة تميز المسارات الانحدارية الرئيسية لمملكة النباتية Dependent embryos (characteristic of all plants) الأجنة غير المستقلة (ميزة لكل النباتات) Lignified vascular tissuesالأنسجة الوعائية المدعمة باللجنين Seedsالبذور Flowers الزهور Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process, in which organisms somehow acquire adaptations out of want or need. This chapter provides good examples of how evolution actually occurs. During the period when plants first moved onto land, the demands of a terrestrial environment selected among the diversity already existing within the various marginal plant species. For example, plants that produced structures that provided some physical support outside of water had an advantage over those without such structures. Plants did not evolve adaptations to address the needs of living on land. Instead, terrestrial adaptations in existing aquatic plants conveyed advantages in this new environment and were therefore favored. 2. The text identifies charophyceans as the algal group most closely related to plants. Students might misinterpret this to mean that modern charophyceans were the direct ancestors of plants. Instead, modern charophyceans and plants share a common ancestor, but each has been evolving since the lineages diverged. This same confusion occurs when considering the evolutionary history of humans and chimps. Humans and chimps share a common ancestor. Modern humans did not evolve from modern chimps. Although such distinctions may be clear to us as instructors, beginning students with little experience can easily be confused. Teaching Tips 1. An analogy exists between a chicken egg and the first seeds, although the parallels are limited: each consists of a developing embryo enclosed in a water resistant packet, along with a store of food. 2. The support provided by many tightly packed mosses is analogous to the collective support of the many fibers of plush carpeting. Each fiber of carpet and each individual moss plant might easily collapse without the support of its neighbor. 3. The authors describe four key adaptations for life on land in Module 17.2. The following modules (17.3–17.13) describe how these adaptations distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom. This is consistent with good lecture advice: Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you told them (summarize). Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Some highlights of plant evolution Liverworts الحزازيات الكبدية Origin of land plants (about 475 mya) نشأة نباتات اليابسة (قبل حوالي 475 مليون سنة) Land plantsنباتات اليابسة Ancestral green alga الطحالب الخضراء السلفي Nonvascular plants النباتات اللاوعائية (bryophytes) (الجزازيات) Hornworts الحزازيات القرنية 1 Mosses الحزازيات القائمة Lycophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) الحزازيات السنبلية (الحزازيات انولصولجانية الحزازيات السنبلية ، الحزازيات الخيشومية) Origin of vascular plants (about 425 mya) نشأة النباتات الوعائية (قبل حوالي 425 مليون سنة) النباتات الوعائية Vascular plants Seedless اللابذرية 2 Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns) السرخسيات (السرخسيات ، الذيل حصانية ، القشية) Vascular plantsالنباتات الوعائية Gymnosperms عاريات البذور Origin of seed plants (about 360 mya) نشأة النباتات البذرية (قبل حوالي 360مليون سنة) 3 انباتات البذرية Seed plants Figure 17.2A Some highlights of plant evolution (dotted lines indicate uncertain evolutionary relationships). Go through the figure with the students: Plants originated from algal ancestors ~475 million years ago. Vascular plants originated 420 million years ago. Seed plants evolved 360 million years ago. Angiosperms arose 140 million years ago. Angiosperms كاسيات البذور 500 450 400 350 300 Millions of years ago (mya)ملايين الأعوام الماضية Some highlights of plant evolution (Dotted lines indicate uncertain evolutionary relationships) القاء بعض الضوء على تطور النبات (تشير الخطوط المتقطعة إلى علاقة تطورية غير أكيدة)

الحزازيات ”نباتات لاوعائية“ Bryophytes الحزازيات ”نباتات لاوعائية“ Liverwort الحزازيات الكبدية Hornwort الحزازيات القرنية Figure 17.2B Bryophytes: moss (left), liverwort (top right), hornwort (bottom right). Moss حزاز قائم

Seedless vascular plants Figure 17.2C Seedless vascular plants: fern (above) and club moss (right). Fern سرخس Club moss سرخس طولجاني Seedless vascular plants النباتات اللابذرية

Gymnospermsعاريات البذور Cycadالسيكاد Blue spruce تنوب أزرق Ephedraالإفيدرا Figure 17.2D Gymnosperms: (clockwise from top) blue spruce (a conifer), Ephedra, gingko, Cycad. Gingkoالجينكو Gymnospermsعاريات البذور

jacaranda treesأشجار الجاكارادنا Angiospermsكاسيات البذور Barley grass نجيل الشعير jacaranda treesأشجار الجاكارادنا Figure 17.2E Angiosperms: barley grass (top) and jacaranda (bottom).

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS AND PLANT LIFE CYCLES تعاقب الأجيال ودورات حياة النبات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

The haploid gametophyte produces gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis 17.3 Haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant life cycles تتعاقب الأجيال أحادية العدد الكروموزومي وثنائية العدد الكروموزومي The haploid gametophyte produces gametes (eggs and sperm) by mitosis الجاميطات الأحادية تنتج من جاميطات (البويضات و الحيوانات المنوية) بواسطة الإنقسام الميتوزى (المتساو) Fertilization results in a diploid zygote الإخصاب ينتج لاقحة ثنائية العدد الكروموسومى The zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte, which produces haploid spores by meiosis Spores grow into gametophytes Although some algae exhibit alternation of generations, charophytes do not. This life cycle is a derived character of land plants. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. Students can easily confuse the animal and plant reproductive cycles. However, the unique feature of alternation of generations in plants (and certain algae) makes analogies and parallels challenging and potentially confusing when referencing animal life cycles. One possible relevant exercise would be to compare the timing of mitosis and meiosis in plant and animal life cycles. Teaching Tips 1. The authors describe four key adaptations for life on land in Module 17.2. The following modules (17.3–17.13) describe how these adaptations distinguish the main lineages of the plant kingdom. This is consistent with good lecture advice: Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them what you told them (summarize). 2. Students might wonder if humans and other animals do not also qualify as having alternation of generations. Although we do have haploid gametes, the haploid and diploid stages do not include multicellular individuals. For the BLAST Animation Alternation of Generations, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Mitosis Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Mitosis Sperm Meiosis Spores (n) Gametophyte plant (n) Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Mitosis Sperm Meiosis Spores (n) Gametes (n) Egg Fertilization Zygote (2n) Figure 17.3 Alternation of generations. Sporophyte plant (2n) Mitosis

FUNGI الفطريات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition 17.14 Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies تمتص الفطريات الطعام بعد هضمه خارج أجسادها Fungi are absorptive heterotrophic eukaryotes that digest their food externally and absorb the nutrients الفطريات هي كائنات حقيقية النواة غير ذاتية التغذية ماصة لغذائها ، حيث تهضم طعامها خارج أجسادها ثم تمتص المواد المغذية Most fungi consist of a mass of threadlike hyphae making up a mycelium تتكون معظم الفطريات من كتلة خيطية تعرف بالخيوط الفطرية مكونة ما يعرف بالغزل الفطري Hyphal cells are separated by cross-walls with pores large enough for ribosomes, mitochondria, and nuclei to cross يتم الفصل بين خلايا الخيط الفطري بجدر عرضية بها ثقوب كبيرة بما يكفي لتسمح بمرور الرايبوزومات والميتوكوندريا والأنوية Some are multinucleate without cross-walls بعض الخيوط الفطرية عبارة عن مدمج نووي ”متعدد الأنوية“ ليس به جدر عرضية Hyphae have a huge surface area to secrete digestive enzymes and absorb food يمتلك الخيط الفطري مساحة سطح ضخمة والتي تفرز إنزيمات هاضمة وتمتص الطعام Fungal hyphae are surrounded by a cell wall with chitin الخيط الفطري محاط بجدار خلوي يحتوي على الكايتين Remind your students that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. The physical relationship between a fungus and its hyphae is analogous to a fire hydrant and the underground water pipes. Only the fire hydrant emerges above the surface of the ground. 2. Ask your students to distinguish between fungi and animals. Both are multicellular heterotrophs lacking cellulose. Students will have to dig a little to discover that fungi have cell walls primarily composed of chitin. You might further challenge them to identify animals that also absorb their nutrients directly from their environments (for example, tapeworms). Animation: Fungal Reproduction and Nutrition Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves Hyphaخيط فطري Figure 17.14C White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves. Myceliumغزل فطري White, threadlike mycelium of a fungus growing on decaying leaves غزل فطري أبيض شبيه بالخيط لفطر ينمو على أوراق متحللة A mycelium, made of numerous hyphae غزل فطري مكون من عدة خيوط فطرية

يستطيع العديد من أنواع الفطريات التكاثر جنسياً ولا جنسياً 17.15 Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles تنتج الفطريات جراثيم في كلا دورتي الحياة الجنسية واللاجنسية Many fungal species can reproduce both sexually and asexually يستطيع العديد من أنواع الفطريات التكاثر جنسياً ولا جنسياً Fungi produce huge numbers of asexual spores, each of which can germinate to form a new fungus تنتج الفطريات أعداداً ضخمة من الجراثيم اللاجنسية ، وكل منها يمكنه الإنبات ليكون فطراً جديداً In many fungi, sexual fusion of haploid hyphae leads to a heterokaryotic stage, in which cells contain two genetically distinct haploid nuclei يؤدي الاندماج الجنسي للخيوط الفطرية أحادية العدد الكروموزومي في العديد من الفطريات إلى مرحلة التباين النووي ، حيث تحتوي الخلايا على نواتين أحاديتي العدد الكروموزومي يختلف كل منهما عن الآخر وراثياً Hours or centuries may pass before parental nuclei fuse to form a short-lived diploid phase قد تمر الساعات أو القرون قبل أن تندمج الأنوية الأبوية لتكوين طور ثنائي العدد الكروموزومي قصير الحياة Zygotes undergo meiosis inside specialized reproductive structures and disperse haploid spores تقوم اللاقحات بالانقسام الاختزالي داخل تراكيب تكاثرية متخصصة ثم تنثر الجراثيم أحادية العدد الكروموزومي Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. The heterokaryotic stage is like the merger of two kingdoms in which both kings continue to rule. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

A proposed phylogenetic tree of fungi شجرة تشعب افتراضية للفطريات Chytrids الفطريات المائية Zygomycetes (zygote fungi) الفطريات التزاوجية (الفطريات الزيجوتية) Glomeromycetes (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) الفطريات التكافلية (الفطريات الميكورازية التفرعية) Ascomycetes (sac fungi) الفطريات الزقية (الفطريات الكيسية) Figure 17.16A A proposed phylogenetic tree of fungi. A proposed phylogenetic tree of fungi شجرة تشعب افتراضية للفطريات Basidiomycetes (club fungi) الفطريات البازيدية (الفطريات الصولجانية)

تشمل هذه المجموعة عفن الخبز الأسود 17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع Zygomycetesالفطريات التزاوجية (الزيجوتية) Zygote fungi form resistant zygosporangia in which haploid spores form by meiosis تُكون الفطريات الزيجوتية محافظ جرثومية مقاومة والتي تتكون بها الجراثيم أحادية العدد الكروموزومي بواسطة الانقسام الاختزالي This group includes black bread mold تشمل هذه المجموعة عفن الخبز الأسود Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf. The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/03-0804.htm. www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/ampdis.htm is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold Figure 17.16B Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold. Zygomycete: Rhizopus stolonifer, the black bread mold الفطريات التزاوجية : ريزوبوس ستولونيفير (عفن الخبز الأسود)

90% من النباتات لديها علاقات تكافلية مع الفطريات التكافلية 17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع Glomeromycetesالفطريات التكافلية These fungi form mycorrhizae, in which invasive hyphae branch into treelike arbuscules within plant roots تكون هذه الفطريات ميكورازيا ، حيث تتفرع خيوطها الفطرية إلى تفرعات شبيهة بتفرع الشجر غازية جذور النبات ومتعمقة فيها 90% of plants have symbiotic partnerships with glomeromycetes 90% من النباتات لديها علاقات تكافلية مع الفطريات التكافلية Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf. The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/03-0804.htm. www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/ampdis.htm is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell Figure 17.16C Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell. Glomeromycete: arbuscule in a root cell الفطريات التكافلية : تفرع شجري في خلية جذرية

تكون بعضها أشناتاً بالاشتراك مع طحالب خضراء أو سيانوبكتيريا 17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تٌصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية Sac fungi form saclike asci, which produce sexual spores تكون الفطريات الكيسية زقاقاً شبيهة بالأكياس والتي تنتج الجراثيم الجنسية They range in size from yeasts to elaborate morels and cup fungi تتنوع في أحجامها ابتداءً من الخمائر المجهرية وإلى الغوشنات ”فطريات صالحة للأكل“ المتطورة والفطريات الكأسية Some form lichens in association with green algae or cyanobacteria تكون بعضها أشناتاً بالاشتراك مع طحالب خضراء أو سيانوبكتيريا Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf. The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/03-0804.htm. www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/ampdis.htm is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية Figure 17.16D Ascomycetes: edible morels (left) and cup fungus (right). Cup fungus فطريات كأسية Edible morels غوشنات صالحة للأكل Ascomycetesالفطريات الكيسية

Basidiomycetesالفطريات البازيدية 17.16 Fungi are classified into five groups تُصنف الفطريات إلى خمسة مجاميع Basidiomycetesالفطريات البازيدية Club fungi are the mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi الفطريات الصولجانبة هي فطريات عيش الغراب ، الكرات النافثة ، والفطريات الرفيه They have club-shaped spore-producing structures called basidia لديها تراكيب صولجانية الشكل منتجة للجراثيم تسمى بالبازيديا These fungi are important forest decomposers هذه الفطريات هي محللات هامة في الغابات Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. As the authors note, chytrid fungi are suspected in the worldwide decline of many amphibian species. The following resources are entry points into the extensive information available about that significant threat to amphibian biodiversity. The Australian government maintains a chytrid fact sheet at www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/c-disease/pubs/c-disease.pdf. The Centers for Disease Control describe the origin of the chytrid fungus at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/03-0804.htm. www.jcu.edu.au/school/phtm/PHTM/frogs/ampdis.htm is a website devoted to updates on amphibian disease. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Puffball كرة نافثة shelf fungi الفطريات الرفيه Mushroomsعيش الغراب Puffball كرة نافثة Figure 17.16E Basidiomycetes (club fungi): mushrooms (left), puffball (center), and shelf fungi (right). shelf fungi الفطريات الرفيه Basidiomycetes (club fungi)الفطريات البازيدية (الفطريات الصولجانية)

17.18 CONNECTION: Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals رابطة تطبيقية : تلحق الفطريات الطفيلية الضرر بالنبات والحيوانات 80% of plant diseases are caused by fungi تسبب الفطريات 80% من أمراض النبات Between 10 and 50% of the world’s fruit harvest is lost each year to fungal attack يتراوح الفقد السنوي من حصاد الفاكهة ما بين 10 إلى 50% لتعرضها لهجوم الفطريات A variety of fungi, including smuts and rusts, infect grain crops تصيب أنواع مختلفة من الفطريات بما فيها فطريات السخاميات والصدأ محاصيل الحبوب Only 50 species of fungi are parasitic on animals, causing mycoses يتطفل 50 نوع من الفطريات فقط على الحيوانات فيسبب العدوى الفطرية Human infections include athlete’s foot (caused by ringworm) تشمل اصابات الإنسان قدم الرياضي (يسببه فطر الدودة المستديرة) Systemic mycoses are rare but serious fungal infections that spread through the body from inhaled spores العدوى الفطرية الجهازية نادرة ولكنها اصابات فطرية خطيرة حيث تنتشر عبر الجسد من استنشاق الجراثيم Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. Students often mistakenly conceive of evolution as a deliberate and directed process. Like the elm trees described in Module 17.18, American chestnut trees were nearly driven to extinction because they did not possess adaptations that would have helped them survive the blight fungus. If evolution results from need, why then would the chestnuts or elm trees suffer? (For details on the chestnut blight, see the website of the American Phytopathological Society at www.apsnet.org/online/ feature/chestnut/. 2. Module 17.18 describes a variety of examples of fungal disease, noting that 80% of plant diseases are from fungi, including infections such as athlete’s foot, ringworm, vaginal yeast infections, and toxic growths on crops. If certain fungal infections are particularly problematic in your region, consider emphasizing them in your lecture. 3. Module 17.21 concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest. For the Discovery Video Fungi, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

تفحمات على نبات الجاودار Ergots تفحمات Figure 17.18B Corn smut. Ergots on rye تفحمات على نبات الجاودار Corn smut سُخام الذرة

17.19 Lichens consist of fungi living in close association with photosynthetic organisms تتألف الأشنات من فطريات تعيش مرتبطة ارتباطاً وثيقاً مع كائنات تقوم بعملية البناء الضوئي Lichens consist of algae or cyanobacteria within a fungal network تتألف الأشنات من طحالب او سيانوبكتيريا متخلله شبكة فطرية Many lichen associations are mutualistic العديد من ارتباطات الأشنات هي ارتباطات تبادل منفعة The fungus receives food from its photosynthetic partner يتلقي الفطر الطعام من شريكه الذي يقوم بعملية البناء الضوئي The fungal mycelium helps the alga absorb and retain water and minerals يساعد الغزل الفطري الطحلب على امتصاص وحفظ الماء والمعادن Lichens are important pioneers on new land, where they help to form soil الأشنات من الرواد المهمين في الأرض الحديثة, حيث تساعد في تكوين التربة Lichens are sensitive to air pollution, because they obtain minerals from the air الأشنات حساسة لتلوث الهواء لأنها تحصل على المعادن من الهواء Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. Wonderful coverage of lichens can be found at the aptly named www.lichen.com/! 2. Module 17.21 concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica Figure 17.19A Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica. Several of the 200 to 300 species of lichen that live in Antarctica العديد من مئات الأنواع من الأشنات التي تستوطن أنتاركتيكا“القطب المتجمد الجنوبي“

Fungal hyphae الخيط الفطري Algal cell خلية طحلبية Figure 17.19B The close relationship between fungal and algal partners in a lichen. The close relationship between fungal and algal partners in a lichen العلاقة الوثيقة بين شريكين فطري وطحلبي في أشن

17.20 Some fungi have mutually beneficial relationships with ants بعض الفطريات لها علاقات تبادل منفعة مع النمل Several species of ants and termites cultivate fungal gardens تحرث العديد من أنواع النمل والنمل الابيض حدائق فطرية The insects feed their fungi with leaves, weeding out undesirable fungi تغذي الحشرات فطرياتها بأوراق النبات وتزيل الفطريات غير المرغوب فيها The fungi feed on the leaves تتغذى الفطريات على الأوراق The ants harvest the swollen hyphal tips يحصد النمل قمم الغزل الفطرية المنتفخة Farmer insects and fungal “crops” have been evolving together for over 50 million years الحشرات المزارعة و “المحاصيل“ الفطرية تطورتا معاً خلال ما يزيد عن 50 مليون سنة Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. The details of the relationship between leaf-cutter ants and the fungi they cultivate make for a fascinating biological study. As time permits, additional details of this story can provide a delightful diversion during the semester. (One excellent resource is the website accompanying the Evolution series produced by PBS. Additional details and an extended video clip on leaf-cutter ants are available for free at www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/3/l_013_01.html. 2. Module 17.21 concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest. For the Discovery Video Leafcutter Ants, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi Figure 17.20 Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi. Leaf-cutting ants carrying leaves to feed fungi النمل قاطع الأوراق يحمل الأوراق ليطعم بها الفطريات

17.21 CONNECTION: Fungi have enormous ecological benefits and practical uses رابطة تطبيقية : للفطريات العديد من الفوائد البيئية والاستخدامات العملية Fungi have many practical uses for humans للفطريات العديد من الاستخدامات العملية للإنسان Some fungi can break down toxic pollutants, including pesticides like DDT and cancer-causing chemicals تستطيع بعض الفطريات تكسير الملوثات السامة بما فيها مبيدات الآفات كالدي دي تي والكيماويات المسببة للسرطان Fungi may be able to clean up oil spills and chemical messes قد تتمكن الفطريات من تنظيف بقع الزيت والمشاكل الكيميائية We eat many fungi, from mushrooms to cheeses modified by fungi نحن نأكل الفطريات ابتداءً من فطر عيش الغراب وحتى الأجبان المصنوعة بواسطة الفطريات Yeasts produce alcohol and cause bread to rise تنتج الخمائر الكحول وتسبب انتفاخ الخبز Fungi provide antibiotics that are used to treat bacterial disease توفر الفطريات مضادات حيوية تستخدم لعلاج الامراض البكتيرية Fungi are playing important new roles in molecular biology and biotechnology تلعب الفطريات أدواراً جديدة هامة في البيولوجيا الجزيئية والتقنية الحيوية Students are unlikely to appreciate the extent to which humans interact with fungi. Clarify for your students the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, fuels, bioremediation, and alcoholic beverages, as well as the many fungal diseases of crops. Student Misconceptions and Concerns 1. The diverse ecological and medical roles of fungi are often underappreciated by students. Consider quizzing your students on the ecological importance of fungi and the medical and ecological significance of fungi to humans before assigning or lecturing on these topics. Such assessments can generate increased student interest and help you evaluate their background knowledge. 2. Students often view fungi as some type of plant. However, many differences between them exist (for example, fungi are not photosynthetic and have cell walls made of chitin rather than cellulose). Emphasize these basic differences early in your lectures in order to clearly distinguish fungi as a distinct group. Teaching Tips 1. Module 17.21 concludes the discussion of fungi by noting the diverse uses of fungi by humans. Students are unlikely to appreciate the roles that fungi play in the production of drugs, alcoholic beverages, or fuel, or in processes such as bioremediation. They may also not appreciate the many fungal diseases that affect human bodies and food sources (described in Module 17.18). Consider beginning your lectures on fungi by noting the many effects of fungi on human life in order to generate interest. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blue cheese الجبن الأزرق Penicillium بينيسيليوم Zone of inhibited growth منطقة تثبيط النمو Staphylococcus aureus ستافيلوكوكس أوريوس Figure 21B A culture of Penicillium and bacteria. Culture of Penicillium and bacteria مزرعة من البينيسيليوم وبكتيريا

Leaves carry out photosynthesis Reproductive structures, as in flowers, contain spores and gametes Cuticle covering leaves and stems reduces water loss Stomata in leaves allow gas exchange between plant and atmosphere Lignin hardens cell walls of some plant tissues Stem supports plant; may perform photosynthesis Vascular tissues in shoots and roots transport water, minerals, and sugars; provide support Roots anchor plant; mycorrhizae (root- fungus associations) help absorb water and minerals from the soil

You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب 1. Describe the key plant adaptations for life on land صف التكيفات الرئيسية للبنات للعيش على اليابسة 2. Describe the alternation of generation life cycle; explain why it appears that this cycle has evolved independently in algae and land plants صف دورة حياة تعاقب الأجيال: اشرح لماذا يبدو أن هذه الدورة قد ظهرت بصورة مستقلة في كل من الطحالي والنباتات الأرضية 3. Describe the key events of the moss, fern, and pine life cycles صف الأحداث الرئيسية لدورة حياة الحزازيات, السرخسيات والصنوبريات 4. Explain how coal was formed; explain why coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil fuels اشرح كيف تكون الفحم النباتي: اشرح سبب تسمية الفحم البناتي, زيت البترول, والغاز الطبيعي بالوقود الأحفوري 5. Describe the parts of a flower and explain their functions صف أجزاء الزهرة واشرح وظائفها 6. Describe the stages of the angiosperm life cycle صف مراحل دورة حياة النباتات كاسيات البذور Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to ما ينبغي عليك معرفته بعد الانتهاء من هذا الباب 7. Describe angiosperm adaptations that promote seed dispersal صف تكيفات كاسيات البذور التي تساعد على انتثار البذور وانتشارها 8. Explain how flowers are adapted to attract pollinators اشرح كيفية تكيف الزهور لاجتذاب الملقحون 9. Compare the life cycles and reproductive structures in the fungal groups قارن بين دورات الحياة وتركيب أعضاء التكاثر في المجاميع الفطرية 10. Describe the structure and characteristics of lichens صف تركيب وخصائص الأشنات 11. Describe the positive ecological and practical roles of fungi صف الأدوار البيئية والعملية الإيجابية للفطريات Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.