A History of Antisemitism in Europe Leading up to World War II From the US Holocaust Memorial Museum’s Resources

Definition In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr originated the term antisemitism. Anti: against Semite or Semitic: referring to a family of languages of Middle Eastern origin, including Hebrew and Aramaic Later used to refer to ethnic and cultural heritage

Origins Roman conquest of Middle East Jews resisted Roman Empire’s culture, etc. As Europe became predominantly Christian, Jews were seen as: Stubborn Hostile Arrogant Murderers of Jesus

Myths in Middle Ages Blood libel Followers of anti-Christ Myth that Jews used blood of Christian children in rituals Seen in one of stories from Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales Followers of anti-Christ Many Jews refused to convert to Christianity; myth that they must believe in the anti-Christ Seen as disloyal to country as well as religion

Seen as scapegoats Pogroms Blamed for disasters riots launched against Jews by local residents, and frequently encouraged by the authorities Blamed for disasters Black Plague Expelled from countries or regions, or restricted to certain areas (ghettos)

Shift in societal role Jews granted protection in early modern Europe (approx. 1600-1800) Jews permitted to take part in business and industry that ruling class didn’t want to Usury (lending money at interest): illegal in the Catholic Church, but often necessary part of urban life Finance Commerce, supply, manufacturing Arts: music, literature, theater, art, etc. Managers on landed estates Tax collectors

Jews not permitted to: Own land (in Central and Eastern Europe) Serve as officers in the military Hold positions of public office Therefore not part of any upper class, as these positions required oaths of loyalty to Christian church as well as to nation

As a result, stereotypes developed Guilds increasingly denied membership to Jewish handicraftsmen (unless they converted). Stereotypes formed: Jews did not work hard or produce goods with their hands Jews chose to work with money because of their greed and their desire to manipulate and cheat Christians Jews were cowards in a fair fight and avoided military service Jews preferred meaningless study and frivolous entertainment to hard work Jews were insincere and potentially disloyal in that they converted to Christianity to obtain material benefits

Nineteenth century: rapid social changes Equality for all meant emancipation from previous restrictions on Jews Some worried that Jews were “displacing” non-Jews in higher education and stable, high-paying jobs previously held exclusively by Christians Antisemitic political parties developed

New stereotypes for new times: Nationalism replaced religion as concern Modified stereotypes: Jews were secretly disloyal to their country Jews had assumed the leadership of the Social Democratic, and later, Communist movements in order to destroy middle class values of nation, religion and private property.

Rise of German Jews to the Middle Class (Robert Nelson, Revolution and Genocide) prior to emancipation in Germany: about 80 percent of Jews were small shopkeepers, peddlers, domestic servants, and beggars. about 2 percent belonged to the “protected” elite of Schutzjuden, a class of wholesale merchants, bankers, and court Jews whose dealings were mainly with princes and with other Christians. By 1861 2 percent of non-Jews engaged in trade in Prussia 58 percent of Jews were merchants implies that 20 percent of all German merchants were Jews.

Science used to promote stereotypes New knowledge of genetics and race Social Darwinism: Belief that humans are not one species but divided into several races to compete against one another for survival Most who believed in social Darwinism believed that the Aryan, or white race, was superior Believed that Jews were a race, not a religion They would “pollute” the white race

Early 20th century Loss of World War I Theories about Jewish and communist traitors working for foreign interests Prominent individual communists of Jewish descent led to associating all Jews with communism Leon Trotsky (Russia), Bela Kun (Hungary), Ernst Toller (Bavaria, Germany)

Post-Versailles Treaty Myths Jews had started the war to ruin Europe financially and politically so they could be in control. Jews were war profiteers. With their inherited cowardice and instinctive disloyalty predisposing them against defending the nation, Jews were responsible for the depression of the troops and betrayed the army, causing the military defeat.

Post-Versailles Treaty Myths At the peace negotiations, foreign Jews were responsible for dividing Germany from Hungary, while domestic Jews misled the nation to “surrender.” The Jews controlled the complex finances of the reparations system for their own profit. Jews used constitutional democracy to gain influence and to destroy the basis of superior Aryan blood by promoting intermarriage, sexual freedom, and miscegenation.

Reality 100,000 Jews served in German army during WWI 12,000 died in action In 1933, Jews made up < 1% of the population. Of the 250 Germans who held prominent government posts between 1919 and 1933, only four were Jews.