Nigeria: Historical Traditions

Three Stages Pre-colonial Era (800-1860 C.E.) The Colonial Era (1860-1960) Modern Nigeria (1960- Present)

Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860 C.E.) Geography: Dictates how and where people live Savannas in the north: Easy trade with the Berbers Forests of the South: Hindered trade with Muslims- traded with Europeans (ocean) Cultural Diffusion occurred gradually, spread of Islam.

Pre-Colonial Era (800-1860 C.E.) 800 BC and AD 200 the central region was dominated by the NOK- discovered how to smelt iron-beginning of the Iron Age. Wealthy. AD 700-Muslim Traders arrive and military empires emerge- Kanem Borno, a major trading center, Europe/Middle East/Asia. 16th century- Oyo Kingdom based in the south-expression of Benin Culture. 19th century, end of Benin culture, Portuguese arrive. 1815-British dominate the West Coast (slave Trade).

The Pre-Colonial Era The Fulani came to the north through jihad, or Islamic holy war. 1808 the Fulani established the Sokoto Caliphate- encompassed the entire northwest, north, mid section and part of the northeast. Traded with Europeans. Succumbed to British by 1900. Put in place the tradition of an organized, central government based on religious faith.

Pre-Colonial Era South: Communal living and traded with the Europeans. Christian 16th to 19th century: Slave Trade. 17th Century: Dutch, British, French, and Spanish slave traders. Impact on Nigeria?

Political Traditions from the Pre-Colonial Era Centralized states (north) Trade Connections: The Niger River, access to the ocean. Sahara Desert to North Africa. Early Influence of Islam: Northern trade with Arabic groups-spread Islam. Islamic principles- Sharia law, emphasized authority and policymaking by the elite-people and women subordinate.

Political Traditions from the Pre-Colonial Era Kinship-based politics: (South) did not extend past village level. Extended families- leaders conducted business through kinship ties. Contrasts with the northern style of government. Complex Political Identities: South did have several centralized kingdoms (Oyo/Ife) and many small standing states in the north. Democratic Impulses: Yoruba and Igbo- longstanding tradition of accountability. Governed in the interest of the people. Leaders seen as representatives of the people.

Colonial Era (1860-1960) 1861: Great Britain annexed Lagos and conquered all of Nigeria (Royal Niger Company) Trading outlet. 1900: Great Britain formally controls Nigeria. Divides it into two parts: North (Muslim indirect rule) and South (Direct) protectorates. Direct Rule: trained natives from the south, European- style bureaucracy. North already structured and left intact. Gave power to the political elites/reinforced tendencies to seek personal benefit from their positions. Emphasized differences between north and south.

The Colonial Era 1939 Split into 4 parts: Hausa-Fulani in the North, Yoruba in the West, a center quadrant and the Igbo in the East. 1945 limited self-government by regional legislatures (constitutions allowed greater autonomy). Oct. 1, 1960, full independence with a new constitution.

Influences from the Colonial Era Introduced western-style education system. Christian missionaries 1st University: 1948. Created fairly literate population. Cleavages: Elites become separated from the people/receive the benefits from an education. Entitled/better than the people. Deepening rift between north and south/schools located in the south.

Political Traditions from the Colonial Era Authoritarian Rule: British ruled indirectly through leaving chiefs in charge-supported British interests. Chiefs accountable only to the British. Loosened the leaders responsibility to the people. The Interventionist State: Chiefs trained to operate in order to reach British economic goals. Civil liberties ignored. Citizens passively accept the will of the government.

Political Traditions from the Colonial Era Individualism: British taught the chiefs to value individualism- neglected the benefit of the community. Christianity: Spread where British influence was the strongest. Intensification of ethnic politics: Ethnic identities broadened and intensified into 3 groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted groups against each other to manage the colony. Gave rewards (education, jobs) to some groups and not others. 20th century, independence leaders appealed to different ethnic groups.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) Independence Period: British “prepared” Nigeria for independence. British trained Nigerians (bureaucracy). Education system included the teaching of Democratic principles/capitalism.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) Alternates between military (8) and civilian (3) control. 4 Republics: First Republic: 1960- patterned under the British parliamentary system: House of Representatives: popularly elected in single member districts and corresponded to ethnic divisions-elected a Prime Minister and Cabinet. Senate composed of tribal chiefs. Similarities with US Presidential System Federal structure developed during colonialism retained. Written constitution/civil rights. Supreme Court/Judicial review.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) The First Republic Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (north)- Elected first PM (head of govt). Remained part of the British Commonwealth. Queen was head of state This system lasts 3 years. Constitution amended to form a Republic, with a President replacing the monarch. Still part of the British Commonwealth. 1964 election (tainted, fraud, violence) polarized parties by ethnic identity. North-Hausa-Fulani the Northern Peoples Congress. East-Igbos- The National Convention of Nigerian Citizens. West-Yoruba- Action Group. National political movements cannot emerge and challenge the ethnic/religious/regional tendencies that were first formally institutionalized during colonial rule.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) 1966- Coup d’etat. Balewa assassinated. Major General Johnson Aguyi-Ironsi (Christian/Igbo) invoked emergency powers/suspends the constitution. Formed the Federal Military Government (FMG). No Federal system. Assassinated in 1967 and a Christian from the North- Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon named leader of the FMG. Reintroduced the federal system. Ethnic polarization continues during his rule and civil war erupts from 1967-70.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) The Igbos unhappy: Gowon does not distribute oil reserves from the eastern region. Civil war left 1 million dead. Gowon attempts to reunify Nigeria. Corruption runs rampant during oil boom years of early 1970’s. High inflation, corruption, limit his effectiveness. 1975: Replaced by Murtala Muhammed, a Muslim from the north. Tries to end corruption and is assassinated by Gowon supporters. Replaced by Olusegun Obasanjo, a Christian from the north- Laid the ground work for the 2nd Republic.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) The Second Republic: 1976 19 state federal republic (harder for ethnic groups to align). New constitution patterned after the American system-separation of powers/presidential system/checks and balances. Designed to end the impact of ethnicity on politics. 1979-democratic elections: Shehu Shagari (Muslim from north). 3 parties representing the 3 main ethnic groups received the most votes. Ethnic politics lives. (Dictator Obasanjo stepped down). Shagari re-elected in a violent election in 1983. Huge drop in the price of oil. End of the 2nd Republic.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) The Third Republic 1983- Coup d’etat by Major General Muhammed Buhari (north) a former commissioner of oil. Replaced the federal government with a Supreme Military Council. Declining oil revenues eroded his support. 1985- Coup d’etat by Major General Ibrahim Babangida (middle belt) remains in power until 1993. Rules under the Armed Forces Ruling Council- ethnically balanced administration. Eventual return of civilian control- new constitution. 30 states instead of 19. Two political parties: National Republic Convention and Social Democratic Party. Election did not work, Babangida resigned before new elections could occur.

The Modern Era (1960-Present) The Fourth Republic Caretaker Government- Ernest Shonekan (Christian from Yoruba) resigned after 4 months. Power fell to General Sani Abacha who removed all plans of rescheduling a new election. 1994- Abiola declares himself president, was put in jail and died in 1998 still awaiting trial. Abacha remains in power until his sudden death in 1998. (Corrupt leader who killed nine prominent human rights activists in 1995). General Abdulsalami Abubaker presided over democratic elections in 1999. Olusegun Obasanjo (now a civilian) won and in power until 2006.

Political Traditions from the Modern Era Parliamentary-style government replaced by a presidential system: 1960-1979- Parliamentary style government. Ethnic divisions made this system impossible. Switched to presidential system in 1979 but legislative and judicial branch have not always checked the executive. Intensification of Conflict: Hausa-Fulani dominated parliamentary government (size). Caused rivalries and ultimately military rule by 1966.

Political Traditions from the Colonial Era Military Rule: Originated to end violence and political corruption. Led to the Biafran Civil War (1967-1970). Created more violence and ethnic-based conflict. Federalism: Attempt at ending violence and keeping Nigeria together. Did not work under military regimes. Economic Dependence on Oil: Leads to corruption. Economy tied to price of oil.

Political Traditions extend to Political Culture Patron-clientelism or Prebendalism: Shared with China and Mexico. Exchanging political or economic favors among patrons and clients (corruption). The patron (political leader) builds loyalty among his clients (or lesser elites) by granting them favors denied to others. (Nigerian leaders may grant portions of oil revenues in exchange for political support)

Political Traditions extend to Political Culture State Control/Rich Civil Society: The sectors of a country that lie outside government control. Formal and informal religious, and ethnic associations, professional and labor groups, and other NGOs, have long shaped society. (Prebendalism) Tension between modernity and tradition: Values established in the pre-colonial era conflict with those established in the colonial era.

Political Traditions extend to Political Culture Religious Conflict: Islam at first coexisted with other religions. Supplanted other religions. Christianity arrived later; spread rapidly. Differences between religions fuel political conflict Role of Sharia?