Writing in English as a Foreign Language Barbara Gastel INASP Associate

Overview The essentials Cultural differences to consider Some common language challenges Some strategies Some resources Suggestions: - Note the topics that the module will address. - Note the module’s aim. (Feel free, of course, to frame it in the way that the group is likely to find most relevant.)

The Essentials The essentials are content, organization, and clarity. If a paper has excellent content, is well organized, and is clear, it is likely to be accepted even if the English is so-so. If a paper has poor content, is badly organized, or is unclear, it is likely to be rejected even if the English is excellent. When writing in English as a foreign language, many authors are concerned mainly about grammar and so forth. However, other items tend to be more fundamental. It is advised that the facilitator emphasize this point.

Cultural Differences to Consider Level of detail? Directness of expression? Attitudes toward time? Attitudes toward using material taken from others’ writing? Other? Authors writing in English as a foreign language may encounter cultural differences, in addition to linguistic ones. Here are some points to consider making in this regard: Members of different cultures tend to communicate in different levels of detail. For example, some English-language journals may expect authors to describe methods in more detail than some authors are accustomed to doing. Authors are advised to look at some papers in their target journals to see how much detail is expected in various sections. (Note: This point reinforces the general point, made elsewhere in this presentation and others, that using models can be a helpful strategy.) Expression in English-language international journals tends to be relatively direct. For example, a typical paragraph states its main point in a topic sentence at the beginning and then provides details. In contrast, expression in many cultures (for example, in some parts of Asia) tends to be indirect; common practice is to lead up to a point slowly or just to talk around a point and expect the recipient to infer it. For researchers to have papers readily accepted by English-language international journals, they may need to write more directly than they are accustomed to doing. Also, they should not be surprised if copyeditors at journals revise their writing to make it more direct. Different cultures have different attitudes toward time, and these differences can affect interaction with journals. Whereas cultures in many countries tend to have relatively relaxed attitudes toward time, English-language international journals tend to be strict about schedules. Authors should know that they are indeed expected to meet the deadlines set by such journals; if there will be any delay, the journals should be informed immediately, so they can plan accordingly. Different cultures have different attitudes toward using material taken from others’ writing. Some cultures have a tradition of using such material freely. However, in international publications in English, authors must cite the sources of information and ideas that are not their own and to indicate any material that is directly quoted; otherwise, plagiarism is said to be occurring. (Note: Here it may be helpful to refer to the presentation “Ethical and Other Issues in Research Writing”. In discussing the points on this slide, it can be worthwhile for the facilitator to note his or her experiences and to ask participants to note relevant experiences that they have had. If feasible, the facilitator should ask the participants to note other relevant cultural differences that they have observed. The facilitator may note additional such differences that he or she has observed. If desired for pacing the discussion, one can replace this slide with multiple slides listing one point apiece or can reformat the slide so that the points are revealed one at a time.

Exercise: Common Language Challenges Please break into groups of about 3 or 4 people. In your small group, discuss the following questions: In writing about your research, what aspects of English tend to be most difficult for you? How can you help overcome this difficulty? Be ready to share some of your small group’s points with the full group. The instructions for this exercise appear on the slide. It is suggested that about 10 to 15 minutes be allotted for the participants to meet in small groups and then share some of their points with the full group. 16/11/2018

Some Common Language Challenges Verb tenses Prepositions Articles (the, a, an) Sentence structure Sentence length Spacing Other This slide lists some items that many non-native users of English find difficult when writing about their research. It is advisable for the facilitator to tie discussion of this list to items that emerged in the previous exercise. Here are some comments that may be added regarding respective items on this slide: Verb tenses differ among languages, and use of proper verb tenses is often challenging for non-native speakers of English. Conveniently, the methods and results sections of scientific papers usually are written almost entirely in simple past tense. Other sections tend to contain a mix of tenses, depending on what is meant. Knowing what preposition to use with what word can be difficult even for native speakers of English. Some dictionaries, online resources for non-native speakers, and other resources provide guidance in this regard. Also, it can be helpful to consult sample papers. Some languages do not have the equivalent of articles such as “the” and “a”. Native speakers of such languages may find it useful to consult online or other resources on article use in English. Different languages sometimes structure sentences differently. For example, the usual placement of the verb may differ. Therefore word-by-word translation may not suffice. Different languages sometimes differ in typical sentence length. For example, sentences in Spanish tend to be longer than those in English. To suit a paper for an English-language journal, native users of languages such as Spanish may need to divide some sentences into two or more sentences. Sometimes different languages have different norms regarding items such as whether a space appears next to a given punctuation mark. When writing in English, non-native users of the language should be aware of English-language norms regarding such spacing. Other such challenges, if any, also should be identified. The additional challenges may be ones noted in the previous exercise or ones that emerge anew.

How might you approach such challenges? What are some strategies and resources that you can use? If time permits, it would be advisable at this point to have small-group discussion, full-group discussion, or both in which participants identify strategies and resources that they use to overcome challenges in writing in English as a foreign language. If time is limited, this slide can be used just as a transition to the next slide.

Some Strategies Compiling lists of words and phrases commonly used in your field Writing simply Having people with a strong command of English review your drafts Other Here are some comments to consider making regarding the listed strategies: An anecdote from an AuthorAID team member’s experience: Some years ago, a student whose spoken English was only so-so submitted a scientific paper with excellent use of English-language words and phrases. When asked how he had done so, he explained that he had gone through 10 papers that top journals had published in his research area and had listed words and phrases from them that related to his research. Preparing one’s own glossary of this type can be a useful strategy. Writing simply both decreases the likelihood of making language errors and makes one’s writing easier for others to read and understand. Remember, the goal is to communicate, not to impress others with your ability to write complexly. It can be helpful to have people with a strong command of English review your drafts. Ideally, the person should be familiar with your research field. It is not essential that the person be a native speaker of English; many non-native speakers have sufficient proficiency to help in this regard. Among people who may be well suited to review drafts are AuthorAID mentors (see www.authoraid.info). Also elicit other strategies that people have found helpful. If you have some of your own, of course add them.

Some Resources The Elements of Style (www.bartleby.com/141/) Lessons on Scientific English (http://www.authoraid.info/en/resources/details/1064/) Getting the Most out of Words (http://www.authoraid.info/en/resources/details/652/) Academic Phrasebank (www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk) Grammar Girl (grammar.quickanddirtytips.com) Links to these resources are provided. It can be helpful to show and comment on these resources and to ask participants about their experience, if any, with them. An alternative to showing this slide is to show a series of slides, each featuring one of the resources. These slides can include screenshots of the resources. This approach can be advisable if you will have Internet access while preparing but might not have Internet access during the session. Of course, if there are additional resources that you recommend, please note them and, if feasible, show them. The resources can be online or other (for example, books to which the participants have access). If feasible, also provide opportunity for participants to recommend resources.

In Conclusion Questions and answers Wrap-up If time permits, include a question-and-answer session. Perhaps do one or both of the following: Ask each group member to write down three points that he or she is taking away from the session. Then have people share the points—either with those sitting near them, with the full group, or both. Summarize the session. 16/11/2018

Wishing you much success with your writing in English! End by expressing the hope that the session will be helpful and by providing additional encouragement. Emphasize that many non-native users of English succeed in publishing papers in the international English-language literature. If this module is part of a workshop, course, or series, perhaps note what is upcoming. Perhaps encourage group members to share points from this session with others. 16/11/2018

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