ESSENTIALS OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY 8TH EDITION By Robert Feldman Powerpoint slides by Kimberly Foreman

CHAPTER NINE: DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 27: Nature and Nurture and Prenatal Development How do psychologists study the degree to which development is an interaction of hereditary and environmental factors? What is the nature of development before birth? What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy?

Developmental Psychology Study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life Nature-nurture issue Developmental psychologists typically take an interactionist position

Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture Genetically control laboratory animals and place in varied environments Identical twins

Developmental Research Techniques Cross-sectional Research Compares people of different ages at the same point in time Differences among groups of people Longitudinal Research Traces the behavior of one or more participants as the participants age Change in behavior over time

Developmental Research Techniques Sequential Research Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth The Basics of Genetics Chromosomes Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information Genes Smaller units through which genetic information is transmitted Composed of sequences of DNA

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth The Human Genome Project Scientists mapped the specific location and sequence of every human gene Gene therapy Health-care providers inject genes to correct particular diseases directly into a patient’s bloodstream

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth The Earliest Development Germinal Period Zygote Fertilized egg First two weeks Embryonic Period Embryo Weeks 2 through 8

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth The Earliest Development Fetal Period Fetus Week 8 until birth Age of viability Point at which it can survive if born prematurely About prenatal age 22 weeks Sensitive periods (critical periods)

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth Genetic Influences on the Fetus Phenylketonuria (PKU) Sickle-cell anemia Tay-Sachs disease Down Syndrome

Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth Prenatal Environmental Influences Teratogens Mother’s nutrition Mother’s illness Mother’s emotional state Mother’s use of drugs Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) Nicotine use

MODULE 28: Infancy and Childhood What are the major competencies of newborns? What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood? How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?

The Extraordinary Newborn Reflexes Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Gag reflex Startle reflex Babinski reflex

The Extraordinary Newborn Development of the Senses: Taking in the World Visual abilities grow rapidly after birth Habituation Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Physical Development During first year of life children typically triple birthweight Height increases by about half Figure 4 of Module 28

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World Attachment The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual Konrad Lorenz Imprinting

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Harry Harlow’s study on attachment “Wire monkey versus cloth monkey” Figure 6 of Module 28

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Assessing Attachment Mary Ainsworth Ainsworth strange situation Securely attached Avoidant Ambivalent Disorganized-disoriented

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood The Father’s Role Number of fathers who are primary caregivers for their children has grown significantly Nature of attachment can be similar

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Social Relationships with Peers Helps children interpret the meaning of others’ behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately Helps children learn physical and emotional self-control

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood The Consequences of Child Care Outside the Home High-quality care centers can positively impact child Low-quality child care provides little or no gain and may even hinder development

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Parenting Styles and Social Development Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Uninvolved Figure 8 of Module 28

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Trust-versus-mistrust stage Birth – 1½ years of age Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage 1½ – 3 years of age Initiative-versus-guilt stage 3 – 6 years of age Industry-versus-inferiority stage 6 – 12 years of age

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor stage Birth to 2 years of age Object permanence Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years of age Egocentric thought Principle of conservation

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Cognitive Development: Children’s Thinking About the World Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete operational stage 7 to 12 years of age Reversibility Formal operational stage 12 years of age to adulthood Abstract, formal, and logical thinking

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Figure 9 of Module 28

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Information-Processing Approaches The way in which people take in, use, and store information Metacognition An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Considering Culture Cognitive development occurs as a consequence of social interactions in which children work with others to jointly solve problems Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own Scaffolding

MODULE 29: Adolescence: Becoming an Adult What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?

Adolescence Developmental stage between childhood and adulthood

Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent Puberty Period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs For girls it begins at about age 11 or 12 when menstruation starts For boys it is marked by their first ejaculation, known as spermarche, usually around the age of 13

Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Three-level sequence Judgments, not moral behavior Moral development in women Figure 2 of Module 29

Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity Identity-versus-role-confusion stage Identity Intimacy-versus-isolation stage Early adulthood Focuses on developing close relationships with others

Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity Generativity-versus-stagnation stage Middle adulthood Ability to contribute to one’s family, community, work, and society, and to assist the development of the younger generation Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage Later adulthood until death Sense of accomplishment

Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality? Research shows that adolescence is not a period fraught with stress and unhappiness as once thought, but nevertheless does have some strife Adolescent egocentrism State of self-absorption in which a teenager views the world from his own point of view Personal fables Belief that one’s experience is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else

Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World Adolescent Suicide Third leading cause of death for adolescents Warning signs: School problems Self-destructive behavior Loss of appetite or excessive eating Withdrawal from friends and peers Sleeping problems Signs of depression Preoccupation with death Putting affairs in order, giving away prized possessions Explicit announcement of thoughts of suicide

Module 30: Adulthood What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes? How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about that period? How can we adjust to death?

Physical Development: The Peak of Health For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health Around age 25, the body becomes slightly less efficient and more susceptible to disease Menopause Women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile Hormone therapy (HT) is controversial

Social Development: Working at Life People typically launch themselves into careers, marriage, and families Midlife transition Period when people may begin to question their lives Midlife crisis

Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties Changes in marriage and divorce trends have doubled the number of single-parent households in the U.S. over the last two decades Economic and emotional consequences for the single-parent households

Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties Changing Roles of Men and Women: The Time of Their Lives More women act simultaneously as wives, mothers, and wage earners Women’s “Second Shift” Additional work performed by women with a career and home responsibilities

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging Suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging Suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply work less efficiently as people age

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old Cognitive Changes: Thinking in Late Adulthood Memory Changes in Late Adulthood: Are Older Adults Forgetful? Alzheimer’s disease Progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone Disengagement Theory of Aging Aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels Life review

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone Activity Theory of Aging Late adulthood should reflect a continuation, as much as possible, of the activities in which people participated during the earlier part of their lives Life review

Adjusting to Death Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s Five Stages Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance