(AKL 3013) SYNTAX Quirk et al. Ch 2.11-16: pages 47-53 Sentences Form and function Clause types EXERCISES: Clause structure Adverbials

2.11 SENTENCES It is usually assumed that sentence is the highest-ranking unit of grammar; However, neither of these terms can be given a clear-cut definition. WHY? The sentence is an indeterminate unit in the sense that it is often difficult to decide, particularly in spoken language, where one sentence ends and another begins.

2.11 SENTENCES Questions of grammatical acceptability relate to questions of meaning, with questions of good or bad style, with questions of lexical acceptability in context, etc.(mind SYNONYMS!) The clause is in many ways a more clearly-defined unit than the sentence. The SIMPLE SENTENCE is the sentence consisting of a single independent clause; it is the most central part of grammar.

2.12 Form and function Grammatical categories may be identified through relationships of choice (or substitution) between constituents. In example (1) (1) [The weather] [has been] [very cold] [just recently] [It ] [was] [cold] [recently] we recognize 4 positions in the clause where different kinds of phrase can occur.

2.12 Form and function But to describe more fully how clauses are composed of phrases, it is necessary to take account of other factors, such as whether a constituent may vary its position (MOBILITY) and whether a constituent can be omitted (OPTIONALITY)

2.12 Form and function In both respects, the adverb phrases are different from the other phrases: (1) The weather has been very cold just recently. (1a) Just recently, the weather has been very cold. (1b) The weather has been very cold.

2.12 Form and function The adverb phrase may be replaced by a different kind of constituent, which is similarly optional and mobile: The weather has been very cold [just recently (AdvP); [this month (NP); [during the past week (PP).

We may classify a unit either 2.12 Form and function Therefore, it is important to distinguish two ways of classifying sentence constituents: We may classify a unit either on the basis of its FORM (i.e. its internal structure as a NP, VP, AdjP or AdvP), or on the basis of its FUNCTION (e.g. as a subject or an object, complement, adverbial of a clause).

2.12 Form and function By FUNCTION is meant a unit’s ‘privilege of occurrence’, in terms of its position, mobility, optionality, etc., in the unit of which it is a constituent. Two units which have the same privilege of occurrence may be said to be FUNCTIONALLY EQUIVALENT.

2.12 Form and function Thus the phrases [just recently] (AdvP); [this month] (NP); [during the past week] (PP), although they belong to different formal categories, may be said to belong to the same functional category of ADVERBIAL.

2.12 Form and function The advantage of distinguishing functional from formal categories is that generalizations of two kinds can be made: those about a unit’s status as a constituent of a higher unit (function), and those about its internal structure in terms of smaller or lower units.

Clause structure 2.13 Central and peripheral elements of the clause To describe the constituency of clauses, we need to distinguish the following elements of clause structure based on their FUNCTION: SUBJECT (S); VERB (V); OBJECT (O); COMPLEMENT (C) / or PREDICATIVE (P); ADVERBIAL (A)

Clause structure SV: Someone [S] was laughing [V] loudly [A] in the next room [A]. SVO: My mother [S] usually [A] enjoys [V] parties [O] very much [A]. SVA: I [S] have been [V] in the garden [A] all the time [A] since lunch [A]. SVC: In 1945 [A] the country [S] became [V] totally independent [C]. SVOO: Mary [S] gave [V] the visitor [O] a glass of milk [O]. SVOA: You [S] must put [V] all the toys [O] upstairs [A] immediately [A]. SVOC: Most people [S] consider [V] these books [O] rather expensive [C].

2.13 Central and peripheral elements of the clause The verb element (V) is the most 'central' element (cf. with the positions of other elements); The most peripheral element is the adverbial (it can be placed initially, medially, or finally); A clause may contain a varied number of initial / final adverbials.

2.13 Central and peripheral elements of the clause The verb element in an English clause is the most 'central' in that (i) its position is normally medial rather than initial or final (ii) it is normally obligatory (iii) it can not normally be moved to a different position in the clause (NB! V-second constraint) (iv) it helps to determine what other elements must occur (e.g., A, O, C)

2.13 Central and peripheral elements of the clause As regards adverbials, (i) their position is most frequently final (ii) they are usually optional (iii) they are mostly mobile (iv) they do not determine what other elements occur. They may be regarded, from a structural point of view, largely as ‘optional extras’.

2.14 A fixed word-order language The possible variants of example [2]: [2a] My mother USUALLY enjoys parties very much. [2b] USUALLY my mother enjoys parties very much. [2c] My mother enjoys parties very much, USUALLY. However, the other elements cannot be similarly moved from their SVO sequence.

2.16 Clause types By eliminating optional adverbials from the clause (e.g., You must put all the toys upstairs immediately), we arrive at a classification of the essential core of each clause structure. Of the obligatory elements, the main verb is the one that determines what form the rest of the structure will take. Classification of sentences into clause types is based on OBLIGATORY ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE.

Table 2.16 Clause types Clause types S(ubject) V(erb) O(bject) C(omplement) A(dverbial) Type SV /1a: Someone was laughing. Type SVO /2a: My mother enjoys parties. Type SVC /3a: The became totally country independent. Type SVA /4a: I have been in the garden. Type SVOO/5a: Mary gave the visitor a glass of milk. Type SVOC/6a: Most consider these books rather expensive people Type SVOA/7a: You must put all the toys upstairs

2.16 Clause types Accordingly, the three main verb classes are as follows: INTRANSITIVE VERBS: (eg 1a) are followed by no obligatory element, and occur in type SV. TRANSITIVE VERBS: (eg 2a, 5a, 6a, 7a) are followed by an OBJECT, and occur in types SVO, SVOO, SVOC, SVOA. COPULAR VERBS: (eg 3a, 4a) are followed by a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT or an ADVERBIAL, and occur in types SVC and SVA.

Types of transitive verbs Monotransitive verbs: occur in type SVO Ditransitive verbs: occur in type SVOO Complex transitive verbs: occur in types SVOC and SVOA

Copular (linking) verbs Copula verb: refers to the verb BE; Copular verbs are those verbs (including BE and BECOME) which are functionally equivalent to the copula (sudėtinio tarinio jungtis). Linking verbs (or copular verbs) link a subject to a complement.

Copular (linking) verbs Linking verbs MUST be followed by another sentence element in order to make the sentence complete. This element can be either a subject complement or an adverbial, and occurs in two sentence types: Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC) and Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA)

Current Linking (Copular) Verbs Appear: John appeared happy when the company promoted him. Be:The graduate students are in Classroom South, Room 106. Feel: She felt really happy with the new baby. Keep: They kept him in bed. Lie: The pieces lay scattered over the floor. Look: This person looks really tired.

Current Linking (Copular) Verbs Remain: Everybody remained silent for a few minutes. Seem: This secretary seems (to be) very efficient. Smell: That perfume smelled so fresh. Sound: She sounded very surprised when she heard the news. Stay: Everybody stayed calm when the fire alarm went off. Taste: This grapefruit tastes very bitter.

Resulting Linking (Copular) Verbs Become: He became a successful business man. Get: She got upset with her students. Grow:The professor grew unhappy because the students were not listening well. Fall: My brother fell in love at the party. Prove:The new secretary proved (to be) very friendly. Run: The children ran wild. Turn:The milk turned sour.

2.17 Objects and complements Object – direct object (Od); indirect object (Oi); usually, the order is SVOi-Od (Mary gave the visitor a glass of milk) Complement – subject complement (Cs); object complement (Co); (The country became totally independent) (Most people consider these books rather expensive)

2.18 Obligatory adverbials Obligatory adverbials occur in the SVA and SVOA patterns: He stayed in bed (A-s: subject-related adverbial). They kept him in bed (A-o: object-related adverbial).

2.21 Active and passive structures Clauses containing a noun phrase (NP) as object are usually matched by passive clauses, in which the object NP now appears as subject (Vpass = passive verb phrase). In all passive clause types, the agent by-phrase has the structural status of an optional adverbial, marked as (A).

Relations between active and passive clause types (1) (1) His manner angered me [SVOd] ~I was angered (by his manner) SVpass(A) (2) He showed his friends his stamp collection [SVOiOd] ~His friends were shown his stamp collection (by him) [SVpassOd(A)]; ~His stamp collection was shown to his friends (by him) [SVpassOi(A)]

Relations between active and passive clause types (2) (3) Most people consider this film rather boring [SVOdCo] ~ This film is considered rather boring (by most people) [SVpassCs(A)] (4) She placed the flowers on the shelf [SVOdAo] ~ The flowers were placed on the shelf (by her) SVpassAs(A)

Revision questions 2.11 - 2.16 What are the two ways of classifying sentence constituents? What are we interested in when we classify a unit on the basis of its form? What is a 'functional category'? How many and what clause types are distinguished in English? Define optional and obligatory elements of the clause. Which element is considered to be the central element of an English clause and why? Which element is considered to be the most peripheral and why?

Clause structure - exercises For each of the sentences below: (a) identify clause elements and label them; don't forget to specify Objects and Adverbials (b) identify optional and obligatory adverbials (c) identify one of the 7 clause types the sentence belongs to (d) identify verb classes Example: His manner angered me terribly. S V 0d (A) monotransitive

Clause structure – exercises (1) His manner angered me terribly. Last winter was exceptionally mild. He showed his friends his stamp collection. She kept her jewels in the bank. The jury found Mr Smith guilty. Several minutes passed. He stayed very quiet. He stayed in bed. They kept him very quiet. They kept him in bed.

Clause structure – exercises (2) A number of people saw the accident. She sent Jim a card. Prices rose. Kate enjoys classical music. The doorman deftly showed the guests into the drawing room on the second floor. Your face seems familiar. We all wish you a happy birthday. My sister lives next door. The president declared the meeting open. I have been in the garden all the time since lunch. Most people consider this film rather boring, actually.

Clause structure – exercises (3) The evenings have turned very cold just recently. She placed the flowers on the shelf. We must talk about it some time. You should have your hands on the wheel. He is outside. Someone was laughing loudly in the next room. You must put all the toys upstairs immediately. The country became a separate nation. Queen Victoria considered him a genius. An intruder must have placed the ladder there. My father gave me this watch. Tigers are carnivorous.