COMPARING CARE – CREATION AND APPLICATION OF CARE INDICATORS TINE ROSTGAARD RECWOWE, DOCTORAL WORKSHOP, HELSINKI, 16-17 SEPT. Titel og undertitel står med store bogstaver (Versaler) og skal holdes indenfor de to vandrette grå linjer. Der kan frit vælges farver fra farvepaletterne til titlen. Undertitlen står i grå. Billedet, der skal være sort + en farve skal dække hele det grå billedfelt som vist i eksemplet. Billeder med forskellige motiver kan hentes på O:/Billedfiler til Power Point

Making care comparable – empirical and methodological recommendations Agenda Placing social care policies in the political agenda of the Adult-worker model Making care comparable – empirical and methodological recommendations Application of care indicators: Care and opinions on child care COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

1. Placing care in the political agenda Employment rates of women and mothers have increased but still a strong potential for a further increase (EU Empl. Strategy) At the same time, fertility rates have declined -> financing and providing care/pensions Ageing of the population is likely to increase the number of years where care is needed Policies may alter the need for care COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Care in the Adult worker model Adult worker model (women and men are assumed equally employable) given impetus to a re-negotiation of formal and informal care responsibilities (Lewis) Care policy laggard led to a caring deficit  (Hochschild) Mainstream analysis of welfare state regimes have tended to be ‘malestream’, and ”the study of social care has remained a dark continent within male theorizing” (Anttonen) COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Definition of social care As labour includes formal/informal as well as private/public signification as a concept is situated in a complex normative framework of obligations, rights and responsibilities as an activity with both financial and emotional costs as policies cover formal and informal, paid and unpaid, public and private, services and cash transfers for both children and older people COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

2. Making care comparable 2a. Incompatibilities and methodological problems of present approaches to data collection 2b. Recommendations for analytical approach COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

2.a Incompatibilities and methodological problems General lack of cross-national consensus of what constitutes the policy field of social care for children and older people: ECEC provision is divided into welfare and education systems. Models of ECEC: Welfare model - all services for pre-school children within the social Nursery education model – Children 0-3 years in welfare system/3+ in pre-school under educational system Elderly care provision divided into social care systems and health care systems Models of elderly care: Care in geriatric units/nursing homes/in the home Care by health care staff/social care staff COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Present approaches to data collection in the ECEC field tend to focus on educational services for the over-3s: - Provision for the under-3s and the provision from the welfare sector is neglected Present approaches to data collection in the care for the elderly tend to focus: In expenditure: On health care In coverage: On institutional care COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Relevance of care services depend on complementary cash benefits: Care needs may be met in other ways than providing a service. National schemes vary greatly in terms of length and payment of of leave schemes, tax credits and cash for care benefits for the purchase of private services. Relevance of service provision may therefore vary. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

- Pluralism of provision an increasing phenomenon. Private provision makes up an increasing bulk of the overall provision of services: - Pluralism of provision an increasing phenomenon. - National statistics, however, mainly report public provision. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

2b. Recommendations for data and indicator development - ECEC as an example Comparison of social care provision should be built on a perspective of functional equivalence in adopting a cross-sectional, cross-benefit approach of comparison: Taking into account health/educational/welfare care provisions, cash as well as service benefits, including private as well as public Enables comparisons where high or low coverage is not directly translatable to being either good nor bad COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Implications and dream scenario! Comparisons should consider services from the educational/welfare sectors where the objective is to provide day-time ECEC services containing an element of care or educational development focussed on the child. Organised - Day time - Containing an element of care or educational activity focussed on the child Centre-based activities – Age-integrated, day centres and nurseries, nursery education/pre- school activities Part-time care – Play groups Home-based – Family day care Excludes: eg.family education services, play groups incl. parents COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Leave for care Leave schemes should be included and evaluated according to accessibility, length and payment, and figures on take-up should be made comparable - Benefits: Leave schemes which entitle parents to take time off to care for their children (Maternity, paternity and parental leave, career leave) - Made comparable: weeks, formula for cash benefit, compensation rate, no. of beneficiaries   COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Welfare mix Private provision from voluntary organisations, employers and for-profit agents should be considered Services: Regulated or publicly financed, or survey based Financing: tax relief for direct provision or subsidy COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Making provision comparable The inherent structural difference in institutional design of the two ECEC models necessitates adaptation of hours of attendance Measures to convert term-time and part-time provision into full-time equivalents (FTEs) COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

- Universal or targeted services Indicators on availability and access to ECEC services should look at the objective of services, the age groups entitled, affordability and the number of children attending - Universal or targeted services - Parental fees (unit cost, % of APW, % of total costs) - No of children in ECEC and no of places available - Attendance of 0, 1, 2, 3... years old - Waiting lists COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Quality of care Indicators on standards of quality of ECEC should include quantitative data as well as qualitative variables: - Economic indicators: National investments in ECEC, per child in a full-time equivalent place (OECD) Structural indicators: Opening hours, child: staff ratio, training of staff, full/part-time employment, staff turn-over, physical surroundings Feedback indicators: parental and employee satisfaction surveys - ’Soft’ indicators: multi-diciplinary teams of staff, collaboration across ECEC provision COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Sources 2000: Rostgaard, T. ‘Developing Comparable Indicators in Early Childhood Care and Education Services’, OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy. Paris: OECD. 2000: Rostgaard, T. ‘Recommendations for data and indicator development for ECEC’ systems. OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care Policy. Paris: OECD. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Data sources EDACwowe OECD Family policy database Eurydice MISSOC EIRO SOCCARE European Foundation for Improvement of Work and Family Life Columbia University Clearinghouse (Sheila Kammerman) International Leave Policy Network, www.sfi.dk Bradshaw 22 country study SHARE Eurobarometer Care architecture project, www.sfi.dk/care_architecture COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Care architecture project Hansen, Kangas, Rostgaard 0-school age and 65+ 7 countries (DK, FIN, S, N, NL, ENG, D, IT) Public and private arrangements Cash and care National/regional Cross-sectional (health, welfare, education) Provision, price, quality, social rights CareData, Index of care, Care variance (Microsimulation), Care cultures, Value of care, Care practises www.sfi.dk/care_architecture COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Preferences or care context: Opinions on child care 3. Application of care indicators Preferences or care context: Opinions on child care Olli Kangas & Tine Rostgaard The Danish National Institute for Social Research Herlufs Trollesgade 11 DK-1052 Copenhagen K

Catherine Hakim: “Work-Lifestyle Choices in the 21st Century”, 2000 3a. Theory Catherine Hakim: “Work-Lifestyle Choices in the 21st Century”, 2000 Attitudinal factors: work-lifestyle preferences, motivations, aspirations etc. are most important ”Free choices” COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Three groups of woman with different preferences: Work-centred women: career-oriented, family is subordinated to this goal. Home-centred women: family in the fore, do not consistently indicate plans for work. Home-making is their career. Adaptive women: “drifters” who adapt their behaviour according to the situation. This group of women should be especially prone to react on public care policies - two other groups are assumed less volatile COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Modernisation process and increasing choice Post-modern theorising on the individualization of Western societies (e.g. Beck 1992; Bauman 2001; Beck, Giddens and Lash 1994): - Process of individualization frees people from structural constraints - Eg Modern society offers many degrees of freedom in choosing family-life-work patterns Attitudinal aspects are growing in importance ->’traditional’ sociological background variables (education, socio-economic class, education etc.) are loosing their relative importance. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

3b. Research questions 1. Are opinions on family-working life more decisive than traditional sociological variables as education, income, socio-economic status? 2. To what extent do the three groups react on care facilities and child care leave possibilities? 3. How does spouse’s opinion affect women’s choices (attitudinal “homogamy”)? COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

3c. Data and method International Social Survey Program (ISSP) third module on Family and Changing Gender Roles 2002 Multinomial logistic regression (MLR) Model: Employment status = preference + index of care 0-2 + index of care 3-6 + index of leave + age + number of children 0-6 + number of children 6-17 + education + marital status + employer + previous work history + socio-economic position. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Survey questions 1. The commitment to work 2. Ideal gender roles 1a. Do you think that that women should work outside the home full-time, part-time or not at all under the following circumstances: - After marrying and before there are children - When there is a child under school age - After the youngest child starts school - After the children leave home 2. Ideal gender roles 2a. Both the man and woman should contribute to the household income 2b. A man’s job is to earn money; woman’s job is to look after the home and family Merged into 1 index: lifestyle preference scale (where the values for last questions were reversed) COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Hypothesis re. care Universalism Prize Quality Affect mother’s and father’s choices and possibilities to choose between different combinations of work and care practices COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

- an index for the leave policies, Care index A number of indices to measure the variation in welfare state efforts towards families with children: - an index for the leave policies, - an index for the day care services for the 0-2 year olds - an index for the day care services for the 3-school age children COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Index on day care Universalism is measured as a combination of: 1. % of the age group in day care 2. a public guarantee of day care provision 3. social expenditure for day care in the country (in PPP per capita of children in ages 0 to the school age. (Two thirds of expenditure attributed to the children aged 0-2 years, as they attend the most costly day care with a higher staff ratio and lower group sizes) The components of the universalism indicator are then weighted, awarding day care take-up a weight of 0.5, and social expenditure and the guarantee each 0.25 COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

1. the parental share of total cost 2. the proportion of the net income for an average production worker, two-parent family with one child aged 1 or 4 years, paid for day care Each bears a weigth of .5. Quality of care includes four components of standards. 1. The staff-child ratio 2. Staff education (% with education) 3. Weekly opening hours 4. Whether there is day care available throughout the year or only during school term (3.-4. measured for the day care schemes with highest take-up) These four components of the quality index are given a weigth of .25 each. COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Index on leave Maximum available time available (either for mother as maternity leave, the father as paternity leave and the parents in common as parental leave). In praxis: we awarded the mother all the available leave time, except for the father’s quota A quota, reserved for the parent who does not take the major part of the leave, i.e. father’s quota. Compensation paid during the leave for an average production worker. => Time X compensation rate for proxy of leave entitlements COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Table 1. Care index, day care for children 0-2 years and 3-school age, and leave entitlements. Denmark Finland Norway Sweden NL UK Germany Day care index children 0-2 years Universalism 0,97 0,69 0,44 0,78 0,24 0,19 0,10 Reversed values! Cost 0,51 0,70 0,64 0,80 0,37 0,00 0,72 Quality 0,76 0,79 0,74 0,71 Total 2,24 2,15 1,80 2,37 1,36 0,90 1,19 Day care index children 3-school age 0,96 0,81 0,48 0,49 0,23 0,35 0,25 0,09 0,61 1,00 0,32 0,85 0,91 0,60 0,52 0,63 1,77 1,92 1,38 2,42 2,10 1,75 1,30 Leave index 2,51 3,58 2,03 3,22 1,22 1,09 1,15 COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

3d. Findings Constraints and opportunities are not similar for all women across countries, and within countries: Structural factors (educational attainment, number and age of children) turned out to be important predictors: - Highly educated women and women without children (not surprisingly) were more prone to be employed, and more often full-time than other women COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Generous leave programs and part-time work are mutually exclusive Leave effect Generous leave programs and part-time work are mutually exclusive - Do women take leave instead of working part-time because of lack of part-time employment? Generous leave schemes and full-time employment are combinatory factors - Does this reflect ‘the Finnish case’? And in general the Nordic employment regime? COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Effect of care cultures? Care service effect High quality day care positive effect on full-time employment ->good day care for the smaller children help women who want to work full-time when their children are small Effect of care cultures? In countries where there is good day care for the 3-school age children women are more likely to work part-time COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Still: High provision of day care is positively associated with the overall probability of women’s employment. And partner effect: Strong evidence that male partner’s family-orientation is linked to the wife’s level of employment, indicating that this is an important relationship to include in the understanding of female labour market behaviour COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018

Source 2007: Kangas, O. & Rostgaard, T. ‘Preferences or context: opinions of child care’, Journal of European Social Policy, 17 (3) COMPARING CARE TINE ROSTGAARD 17-11-2018