Fig. 5-CO, p. 93

Fig. 5-1, p. 95 Figure 5.1: Electronegativity values. Nonmetals have high electronegativity values (e.g., O, 3.5), metalloids have intermediate values (e.g., Ge, 2.0), and metals have low values (e.g., Mg, 1.3). Fig. 5-1, p. 95

Fig. 5-2, p. 96 Figure 5.2: Structure of sodium chloride. (a) Model of the three-dimensional sodium chloride crystal lattice. (b) Each Cl− ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions. (c) Each Na+ ion (in red) is surrounded by 6 Cl− ions. Fig. 5-2, p. 96

Fig. 5-2a, p. 96 Figure 5.2: Structure of sodium chloride. (a) Model of the three-dimensional sodium chloride crystal lattice. Fig. 5-2a, p. 96

Fig. 5-2b, p. 96 Figure 5.2: Structure of sodium chloride. (b) Each Cl− ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions. Fig. 5-2b, p. 96

Fig. 5-2c, p. 96 Figure 5.2: Structure of sodium chloride. (c) Each Na+ ion (in red) is surrounded by 6 Cl− ions. Fig. 5-2c, p. 96

Figure 5.3: Sodium (stored under mineral oil to protect it from oxygen in the air), chlorine, and sodium chloride (which we know as table salt). Fig. 5-3, p. 96

Fig. 5-4, p. 97 Figure 5.4: Common ions. Main-group metals usually form positive ions with a charge given by the group number (blue). For transition metals, the positive charge is variable (red), and ions other than those shown are possible. Nonmetals generally form negative ions with a charge equal to 8 minus the group number (yellow). The Group 8A elements, known as the noble gases, form very few compounds. Fig. 5-4, p. 97

An uncut sapphire. Blue sapphire is aluminum oxide with a small proportion of its aluminum ions replaced by iron(II) and titanium(IV) ions. p. 97

Table 5-1, p. 99

Table 5-2, p. 100

Gypsum wallboard. Gypsum is hydrated calcium sulfate, CaSO4 · 2 H2O. p. 100

Nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonding.

The Personal Side: Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946)

p. 104

p. 104

Tetrahedral methane. The four faces of a tetrahedron are equilateral triangles, and the angle between any two lines drawn from the center to two corners is 109.5°. p. 104

Fig. 5-5, p. 106 Figure 5.5: Structure of an ethylene molecule. All the atoms in this molecule lie in the same plane. Fig. 5-5, p. 106

Table 5-3, p. 106

p. 107

p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6, p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6a, p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6b, p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6c, p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6d, p. 107

Figure 5.6: Balloon models of electron-pair geometries for two to six electron pairs. Balloons of similar size and shape, when tied together, naturally assume the arrangements shown. Fig. 5-6e, p. 107

p. 108

p. 108

p. 109

Table 5-4, p. 109

Table 5-5, p. 110

Fig. 5-7, p. 111 Figure 5.7: Nonpolar, polar, and ionic bonds. (a) In a nonpolar molecule such as H2, the valence electron density is equally shared by both atoms. (b) In a polar molecule like HF, the valence electron density is shifted toward the fluorine atom. An arrow is used to show the direction of molecular polarity, with the arrowhead pointing toward the negative end of the molecule and the plus sign at the positive end of the molecule. (c) In ionic compounds such as NaCl, the valence electron or electrons of the metal are transferred completely to the nonmetal to give ions. Fig. 5-7, p. 111

Fig. 5-7a, p. 111 Figure 5.7: Nonpolar, polar, and ionic bonds. (a) In a nonpolar molecule such as H2, the valence electron density is equally shared by both atoms. Fig. 5-7a, p. 111

Fig. 5-7b, p. 111 Figure 5.7: Nonpolar, polar, and ionic bonds. (b) In a polar molecule like HF, the valence electron density is shifted toward the fluorine atom. An arrow is used to show the direction of molecular polarity, with the arrowhead pointing toward the negative end of the molecule and the plus sign at the positive end of the molecule. Fig. 5-7b, p. 111

Fig. 5-7c, p. 111 Figure 5.7: Nonpolar, polar, and ionic bonds. (c) In ionic compounds such as NaCl, the valence electron or electrons of the metal are transferred completely to the nonmetal to give ions. Fig. 5-7c, p. 111

Table 5-6, p. 112

Figure 5.8: Polar sulfur dioxide molecules attracted to one another (oxygen atoms attract electrons more than do sulfur atoms). Fig. 5-8, p. 113

Figure 5.9: Boiling points of simple hydrogen-containing compounds. Lines connect molecules in which hydrogen combines with atoms from the same periodic table group. As shown for water, the temperature at which the compounds would boil if there were no hydrogen bonding is found by following the lines on the right down to the left. Fig. 5-9, p. 114

Figure 5.10: The four hydrogen bonds between one water molecule and its neighbors. Fig. 5-10, p. 114

Fig. 5-11, p. 115 Figure 5.11: The three states of matter. The particles represented by the circles can be atoms, molecules, or ions (in liquids and solids). (a) In a gas, particles are very far apart and move rapidly in straight lines. (b) In a liquid, the particles move about at random, alone or in clusters. (c) In a solid, the particles or ions are in fixed positions and can only vibrate in place. Fig. 5-11, p. 115

Fig. 5-11a, p. 115 Figure 5.11: The three states of matter. The particles represented by the circles can be atoms, molecules, or ions (in liquids and solids). (a) In a gas, particles are very far apart and move rapidly in straight lines. Fig. 5-11a, p. 115

Fig. 5-11b, p. 115 Figure 5.11: The three states of matter. The particles represented by the circles can be atoms, molecules, or ions (in liquids and solids). (b) In a liquid, the particles move about at random, alone or in clusters. Fig. 5-11b, p. 115

Fig. 5-11c, p. 115 Figure 5.11: The three states of matter. The particles represented by the circles can be atoms, molecules, or ions (in liquids and solids). (c) In a solid, the particles or ions are in fixed positions and can only vibrate in place. Fig. 5-11c, p. 115

Fig. 5-12, p. 115 Figure 5.12: Water (H2O) and benzene (C6H6). (a) Ice floats on water. (b) Solid benzene (melting point 5.5°C) sinks in liquid benzene. Fig. 5-12, p. 115

Fig. 5-12a, p. 115 Figure 5.12: Water (H2O) and benzene (C6H6). (a) Ice floats on water. Fig. 5-12a, p. 115

Fig. 5-12b, p. 115 Figure 5.12: Water (H2O) and benzene (C6H6). (b) Solid benzene (melting point 5.5°C) sinks in liquid benzene. Fig. 5-12b, p. 115

Fig. 5-13, p. 116 Figure 5.13: A bicycle pump. The effects described by Boyle’s Law (Section 5.9) in action. The pump compresses air into a smaller volume. You experience Boyle’s law because you can feel the increasing pressure of the gas as you press down on the plunger. Fig. 5-13, p. 116

Fig. 5-14, p. 118 Figure 5.14: Solubilities. (a) Polar water, with a bit of nonpolar iodine (I2) dissolved in it, floats on top of nonpolar carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), with which it is immiscible. (b) Nonpolar iodine is much more soluble in nonpolar carbon tetrachloride than in water. Therefore, shaking the mixture in (a) causes the iodine molecules to migrate into the carbon tetrachloride, where they produce a purple color. Fig. 5-14, p. 118

Fig. 5-14a, p. 118 Figure 5.14: Solubilities. (a) Polar water, with a bit of nonpolar iodine (I2) dissolved in it, floats on top of nonpolar carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), with which it is immiscible. Fig. 5-14a, p. 118

Fig. 5-14b, p. 118 Figure 5.14: Solubilities. (b) Nonpolar iodine is much more soluble in nonpolar carbon tetrachloride than in water. Therefore, shaking the mixture in (a) causes the iodine molecules to migrate into the carbon tetrachloride, where they produce a purple color. Fig. 5-14b, p. 118

Figure 5.15: Ice cubes shrink in the freezer because of sublimation. Even a solid like ice has a vapor pressure caused by its molecules in the vapor state. Dry air will sweep these molecules away. Fig. 5-15, p. 120

Table 5-7a, p. 120

Table 5-7b, p. 120

Applying Your Knowledge #23a, p. 123

Applying Your Knowledge #23b, p. 123

Applying Your Knowledge #28a, p. 123

Applying Your Knowledge #28b, p. 123

Applying Your Knowledge #28c, p. 123