Modules 4-7 – Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science AKA – Methods and Statistics Pages 30 - 63

Three Primary Research Strategies I. Observations – Describe behavior II. Correlations – Predict behavior III. Experiments – Explain behavior

Observational Research 1. Case Study – Researcher collects lengthy, detailed information about a person’s background Advantages: Provides a great deal of knowledge, helps to try to explain behavior Disadvantages: Anecdotal cases of contradictory data, dishonesty, researcher bias Ex. Serial Killer Studies

2. Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Cross Sectional Study – Studies different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the lifespan Longitudinal Study – The same group is followed over an extended period of time – can be time consuming and expensive Ex. Changes in work ethic over time Hoop Dreams or Boyhood http://vimeo.com/7983884

3. Naturalistic Observation - Watching and recording the behavior of subjects in their natural environment Advantages: Subjects may not know if they are actually being studied Ex. Helping an elderly woman Disadvantages: Researchers can’t ask any questions – may be inaccurate in their interpretations Hawthorne Effect

Advantages: Researchers can obtain detailed, personal information 4. Interviews Advantages: Researchers can obtain detailed, personal information Disadvantages: Subject may not be honest Ex. What kind of TV shows do you watch? Ex. Japanese riddle/puzzle game

5. Psychological Testing - Advantages: Leaves no room for bias – Answers are either right or wrong Ex. Police Officer Test Disadvantages: Can’t test for the way a person would react in a given situation

6. Survey Method - Ask questions about feelings, opinions or behavior patterns to a selected group of people Advantages: Can be very accurate if done correctly Disadvantages: May not be objective, may not representative of the population

II. Correlational Research Correlation – A method used to analyze and interpret data gathered through observation. Correlation is a measure of how closely one thing is related to another. Correlation Coefficient – measure of strength of relationship ranging from -1 to +1 Ex. Relationship between stress and health, grades earned and extracurricular activities

Positive vs. Negative Correlation Positive Correlation – Direct relationship – Two things either increase or decrease together Ex. Violence viewed on TV and aggressive behavior 1:00 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7d4gmdl3zNQ&feature=related Negative Correlation – Inverse relationship – As one increases the other decreases Ex. Tooth brushing and tooth decay

AP PREP – KEY IDEA Correlation IS NOT Causation Correlation enables prediction, but does not reveal the cause of something Ex. Do black sports uniforms impact perceptions?

Correlational Coefficient -1.00------- -.5-------0------+.5-------+1.00 Strong Some Weak Rel. Some Strong

Illusory Correlations - The perception of a relationship where none exists. When we have previously set beliefs, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm those beliefs Ex. Getting cold and wet leads to… Ex. Wearing lucky socks as an athlete We can deceive ourselves by seeing things that are not there if we mistake a random coincidence for a correlation

III. Experimental Research Experiment – A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process Experiments can reveal cause and effect

Sample Experiment One of the earliest studies conducted was to assess whether or not the moon influences our behavior. The study compared mental hospital admissions to the phases of the moon.

Hypothesis A statement of the results that the experimenter expects. Previous Example – Researcher expected an increase in admissions when there was a full moon

Subjects People or animals being tested Ex. People being admitted to the hospital

Items in experiment that are subject to change Variables Items in experiment that are subject to change Ex. Phases of the moon and mental hospital admissions

Independent vs. Dependent Independent – Factors that are changed or manipulated by the researcher Dependent – Factor that will change as a result of the changes in the independent variable What are the Independent and Dependent variables in the lunacy experiment?

Independent vs. Dependent Hypothesis: Students score higher on SAT’s in the morning than afternoon Hypothesis: People who wear uniforms will receive greater respect than those that don’t Hypothesis: Strict parents raise children that rarely get in trouble Hypothesis: People tend to jog faster when others are watching Hypothesis: The way a ball is thrown will affect whether or not it is caught Ex. Stanley Milgram Obedience StudyHandout

Confounding Variables Also referred to as “Hidden” or “Extraneous” variables Unexpected variables that may impact the results of an experiment Clever Hans Hindsight Bias – the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. Hindsight is 20/20

Placebo & Placebo Effect Placebo – “Fake” medicine administered during a study Placebo Effect – Experimental results caused by expectations alone – any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which is assumed to be an active agent On average, 50% of pain is cured by the power of suggestion

Placebo Effect cont’d Ex. O’Douls Any examples of your own? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFCdhr6l3ls&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1&safe=active Saved Any examples of your own?

Single vs. Double-Blind Studies Single-Blind Study – A study in which only the researcher is aware of who is getting the placebo Double-Blind Study – A study in which both the researcher and participants are “blind” about the treatment and the placebo – commonly used in drug evaluation studies

Experimental vs. Control Groups Experimental Group – Individuals that receive the treatment Control Group – Do Not receive the treatment Every effort is made by the researchers to ensure that all other conditions are held constant for both groups…Why?

Random Assignment Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance – the effect is to minimize any pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups ***Minimizes confounding variables ***DO NOT CONFUSE WITH RANDOM SAMPLE Again, Stanley Milgram Obedience Study

Please see handouts and homework! Statistics Please see handouts and homework! 200 years 200 countries