Explain your optional individual topic using at least three approaches and one theory. (20)

Cognitive Approach Short-term memory – a limited amount of processing takes place here. Short term memory has a very limited capacity (7 items +/- 2) and short duration (max. 30 seconds), unless the information in it is maintained through rehearsal. Long-term memory – this is a relatively permanent store which has unlimited capacity and duration. Information is passed to long-term memory from short-term memory after rehearsal. Later research by Miller (1956) coined the term ‘magic number 7’. Miller claimed that capacity of 7+/-2 was true not only for a list of digits, letters, or words but also for larger ‘chunks’ of information. Chunks are integrated pieces, or units of information. ‘Chunking’ has been shown to increase the capacity of STM but it may reduce its accuracy. Schemas - about something that you have experienced. Cognitive psychologists thinks that long-term memories are based on schemas, meaning that similar memories are stored together.   As our schemas are influenced by culture and expectations, people should remember things better if they are consistent with a schema. This is exactly what was found by memory researchers Brewer and Treyens (1981) who studied recall of objects in an office scene. However, in a similar study, Pezdek et al (1989) directly compared schema- consistent and schema inconsistent items, and found that that inconsistent items were better recalled. They concluded that this is due to more attention being given to items that seem surprising or unusual during the process of encoding

Multi-Store Model of Memory (Theory) Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggest that memory is made up of a series of stores, and describe memory in terms of information flowing through a system. Accordingly, it can be described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output. Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory store. If attended to this information enters the short term memory. Information from the STM is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed. Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that rehearsal maintains data in short-term memory, and without rehearsal the data is lost within 30 seconds. Rehearsal means that information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory where it can last a lifetime. If rehearsal does not occur, then information is forgotten, lost from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay. Maintenance rehearsal is where a word is repeated aloud several times to retain it is short-term memory Elaborative rehearsal is where information is processed in terms of its meaning. It is suggested that maintenance rehearsal may maintain information in short-term memory, but elaborative rehearsal is required to make the transfer to long-term memory.

Biological Approach Alcohol acts as a general central nervous system depressant, but it affects some areas of the brain more than others. Specifically, it leads to distraction and inattention and significantly inhibits neuronal activity in the hippocampus, which impairs memory encoding since the hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new declarative memories. Because procedural memory functions more or less automatically, retrieval of procedural memory (“remembering how”) is not as severely impaired by alcohol as retrieval of declarative memory (“remembering what”). Alcohol particularly impairs the encoding of episodic memory (that part of declarative memory that relates to our personal experiences and specific events in time), especially for certain types of recall, such as cued recall, the recognition of completed word fragments and free recall. A "blackout" is an example of a difficulty in the encoding of episodic memories due to high doses of alcohol. It is caused by a rapid increase in blood alcohol concentration, which in turn distorts the activity of neurons in the hippocampus, thus impairing person's ability to form new episodic memories.

Evidence to Support the Biological Approach Clive Wearing A virus destroyed his hippocampus; which psychologists now conclude is an area of the brain crucial for memory and learning leaving him with dense amnesia. His ability to play music has not been affected, but he is unaware of it. It is not only memories since the illness that he has lost. He has no memory of any event in his life, although he can remember key numbers and names from early childhood. He retains the power of speech and has a good vocabulary so word recall is not a problem. He can read and write but doesn’t remember doing either.

Psychodynamic Approach The psychoanalytic approach in psychology has a heavy emphasis on the effect of emotional factors on behaviour. Freud (1915) proposed that we are motivated to forget events by the desire to avoid displeasure. Therefore embarrassing, unpleasant and anxiety provoking experiences are repressed i.e. pushed down into the unconscious. Repression is a defence mechanism, which is initiated by the ego. It is an unconscious process and blocks the conscious recall of memories.