Literature of the Middle East Unit 4

Mesopotamia A term commonly used to refer to the geographical area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Today most of Mesopotamia falls within the borders of Iraq It’s often referred to as the “cradle of civilization” because society and culture possibly first emerged from this area, especially during the Bronze Age Bronze Age: 3200 B.C. – 1200 B.C. Several civilizations developed in Mesopotamia around this time period, starting with the Sumerians in 2900 B.C.

Mesopotamia After the flood, kings like Gilgamesh ruled the land Divided their history into two parts: Before and after the Great Flood Before the flood, priests and sages ruled the land receiving their instruction from their god, Ea, the god of waters and wisdom After the flood, kings like Gilgamesh ruled the land

Mesopotamia / Sumerians Sumerians became the first literate culture in Mesopotamia, and the first to develop schools Developed a number system based on 60 Today, our 60 second minute and our 60 minute hour originate with the ancient Sumerians (as does our 360 degree circle) Cities built around six or seven story stepped temples that served as staircases used by the gods when descending from the heavens

Mesopotamia Between 2500 and 500 BCE Mesopotamia was filled with ongoing wars between the ever-populating cultures In 2300 BCE, the Babylonians defeated the Sumerians and adopted their culture The Babylonians were the first culture to record Gilgamesh in its present form

Cuneiform From the Latin meaning “wedge-shaped”, a system of writing used throughout the Near East during the first three millennia BCE

Akkadian A Semitic language (i.e., from the same language family as Hebrew and Arabic) that was the common tongue of ancient Mesopotamia

http://www.learner.org/courses/worldlit/ gilgamesh/watch/ Intro to Gilgamesh http://www.learner.org/courses/worldlit/ gilgamesh/watch/

The Epic of Gilgamesh Cuneiform tablets first discovered by archaeologists in the 19th century CE among ruins in Ninevah (Once the capital city of the Assyrian Empire Other copies and versions found throughout the area now corresponding to the Ancient Near East

The Epic of Gilgamesh Story of a Sumerian king Originally written in Akkadian Earliest form known to us dates back to around 1900 BCE and is Babylonian About 75 different copies of this version survive, although fragmented, such that the text cannot be reconstructed in full

The Epic of Gilgamesh Legends state that Gilgamesh ruled for 126 years, although a “year” may have been measured in seasons or moon phases, or perhaps the length of reign was embellished to make his legacy larger than life Gilgamesh is 2/3 god and 1/3 man, being the son of the goddess Ninsun and the Priest Kullub

Literary Significance Gilgamesh is a historical figure A Sumerian king who ruled Uruk almost a millennium before The Epic of Gilgamesh was composed (ca. 2700 BCE)

The Epic of Gilgamesh The stories preserved in the literary tale(s), however, are not historical in any strict sense,although some elements may trace back to the myths and legends that began to spread (in both written and oral form) in his own time and perhaps even soon after his death

The Epic of Gilgamesh Reflection of editing and combination of earlier and smaller Sumerian tales into what we now know as an “epic” What we know as The Epic of Gilgamesh has multiple unknown authors who have woven these tales into a single story/larger narrative with sustained themes.

The Epic of Gilgamesh Composed in verse, rather than prose Concerns humankind and the gods, but not a sacred text in the sense of a text used in liturgies(public worship)or religious festivals.

Narrative Structure Preface: a celebration of the achievements of Gilgamesh throughout his life Tablets I - VI: Gilgamesh’s heroic deeds, including the conquest of the demon Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven; major subplot involves Enkidu and his journey from nature to civilization Tablets VII - XI: Gilgamesh’s attempt to grapple with death, as sparked by the death of Enkidu; Gilgamesh’s mourning and his journey searching for the secret immortality; major subplot is the story-within-a-story recounting the Flood

Narrative Structure Tablet XII is a later addition to the epic Not narratively connected to the earlier plot, but picks up and further explores the theme of immortality and mortality by means of a tale about Enkidu’s journey to the underworld

Thematic Elements DIVINE vs. HUMAN (Tablets I - VI) Gilgamesh is perched uncomfortably between divine and human The gods are forced to intercede because of his arrogance Mortality as reminder of his humanity Humanization of Enkidu DIVINE vs. HUMAN vs. Animal (Tablets VII - XI) Reflections on human mortality and hopes for immortality The text gives answers as to what constitutes immortality for humans: civilization and fame Purpose of mortal lives: friendship and wisdom

Thematic Elements CITY vs WILDERNESS (Tablets I - VI) Enkidu’s entry into civilization is marked by his geographical movement from the wilderness to the city His participation in the battle against Humbaba, signifies his switch in loyalties Enkidu’s death causes Gilgamesh to make the opposite move, from city to wilderness on his journey CITY vs WILDERNESS (Tablets VII - XI) It is only through journeying through uncertainty and and darkness that he arrives at wisdom Returns in the end to the city, a more mature and better king having experienced not just strength and victory, but also loss and failure

Plot Epic begins with the oppressive despotism of Gilgamesh Compared to a wild bull in both strength and lack of control; also a lack of care for the weak The complaints of his people create first conflict and move the first action of the text The gods hear the pleas of the people and decide to create Gilgamesh’s double- Enkidu - as an equal for him to fight

Plot (Cont’d) Enkidu raised in the wilderness Lives like the animals The Stalker (unnamed hunter who moves between - and mediates - the worlds of the wilderness and the city) sees Enkidu and tells Gilgamesh Gilgamesh has The Stalker bring the temple courtesan to Enkidu, so he will be drawn to her and “his animals will turn from him”

Plot (Cont’d) The process of relations with the courtesan results in the animals recoil from Enkidu After talks of Gilgamesh and his power (and Uruk and its riches), she convinces Enkidu to travel to Uruk to try and conquer Gilgamesh

Plot (Cont’d) Enkidu comes to Uruk Gilgamesh and Enkidu fight Gilgamesh wins, but the two become friends The two set off in search of adventure and fame They fight Humbaba, the guard of the cedar forest They are victorious and return to Uruk as heros

Plot (Con’t) The goddess Ishtar, impressed, asks Gilgamesh to marry her He refuses and she unleashes the Bull of Heaven upon him For Gilgamesh’s hubris, the gods decide that Enkidu must die Enkidu becomes ill, laments his departure from the wilderness, then comes to accept its goods

Plot (Cont’d) Gilgamesh is devastated by the loss of his friend He now begins to question mortality/immortality and the inevitability of death

Plot (Cont’d) Gilgamesh speaks to Utnapishtim, who is rumored to be the only human to have escaped death Gilgamesh’s journey is filled with imagery of hardship and darkness, together with repetition, which serves to evoke the journey’s length as well as to underline its key points

Plot (Cont’d) Gilgamesh tells the story to all whom he encounters. Each time, he retells his reason- stressing that he is compelled by a need to KNOW All tell him his journey is pointless - humankind is mortal- there are no exceptions and no act of heroism can change this The extreme repetition serves to highlight the endurance and persistence of Gilgamesh (foil to the hero seen in the earlier part of the tale)

Plot (Cont’d) Gilgamesh succeeds in seeing Utnapishtim, who tells him the story of the Flood The god Enil sends the Flood to humankind without consulting the rest of the gods The god Ea gets around the requirement to not tell any humans by speaking to Utnapishtim through a reed wall and helps him think of a way to explain why he is building a big boat Utnapishtim and his family survive, carrying with them seeds of animals as well

Plot (Cont’d) After the flood, Ea convinces Enil to only punish the wicked, not all humans, in the future and there is a trade-off; instead of the threat of total destruction, humankind receives hardship in life

Plot (Cont’d) Only one man, Utnapishtim, is spared the fate of death Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that he too can can ask the council of the gods for eternal life, provided that he pass a test of not sleeping for six days and seven nights Gilgamesh fails

Plot (Cont’d) Utnapishtim then tells him of a plant, the eating of which may bring immortality. Gilgamesh fails again. He finds the plant, but a serpent eats it Gilgamesh returns to Uruk, still mortal but wiser for the journey