31.2 Section Objectives – page 826 Unit 3 Objectives: Objective 1: Describe the evolutionary origin of Modern Birds Objective 2: Describe basic characteristics of Modern Birds Objective 3: Explain the form and function of the types of bird wings and the types of beaks/bills. Objective 4: Describe the reproductive strategies for birds Objective 5-7: Identify common examples of each of the orders of birds. Objective 8: Student Presentation of Birds. 31.2 Section Objectives – page 826

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 What is a bird? Birds inhabit a variety of environments around the world, including Antarctica, deserts, and tropical rain forests. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 What is a bird? Fossil evidence seems to indicate that birds have evolved from small, two-legged dinosaurs called theropods. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Origin of Birds Fossil finds in China support the idea that birds evolved from a theropod dinosaur. -Paleognathae: The large flightless ostrich-like birds and the kiwis, often called ratite birds, which have a flat sternum with poorly developed pectoral muscles. -Neognathae: Flying birds that have a keeled sternum on which powerful flight muscles insert. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Origin of Birds Most scientists studying the origins of birds hypothesize that feathers evolved before flight. Feathers aren’t the only features shared by modern birds and some theropod dinosaurs. Both also have a sternum, a wishbone, shoulder blades, flexible wrists, and three fingers on each hand. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Origin of Birds Scientists hypothesize that today’s birds are derived from an evolutionary line of dinosaurs that did not become extinct. At first, scientists thought that Archaeopteryx was a direct ancestor of modern birds; however, some paleontologists now think that it most likely did not give rise to any other bird groups. (About the size of a crow) Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Parrots, lories, and cockatoos 340 species Origin of Birds Owls 146 species Perching Birds 5200 species Herons, bitterns, and ibises 114 species Woodpeckers, toucans, and honey guides 383 species Hawks, eagles, and falcons 288 species Archaeopteryx Swans, geese, and ducks 150 species Penguins 18 species Theropod dinosaur Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 What is a bird? Like reptiles, birds have clawed toes and protein scales on their feet. Fertilization is internal and shelled amniotic eggs are produced in both groups. Although some birds are flightless, all birds have feathers and wings. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds have feathers A feather is a lightweight, modified protein scale that provides insulation and enables flight. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds have feathers Preening, keeps the feathers in good condition for flight. During preening, a bird also uses its bill or beak to rub oil from a gland near the tail onto the feathers. This is especially important for water birds as a way to waterproof the feathers. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds have feathers The shedding of old feathers and the growth of new ones is called molting. Most birds molt in late summer. However, most do not lose their feathers all at once and are able to fly while they are molting. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds have wings A second adaptation for flight in birds is the modification of the front limbs into wings. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds have wings Powerful flight muscles are attached to a large breastbone called the sternum and to the upper bone of each wing. The sternum supports the enormous thrust and power produced by the muscles as they move to generate the lift needed for flight. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Flight Wings Hollow bones For birds, the ability to fly is the result of complex selective pressures that led to the evolution of many adaptations. Beaks Air Sacs Legs Digestion Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Wing Types -Elliptical wings: birds such as flycatchers, warblers, doves, woodpeckers, and magpies, which must maneuver in forested or brushy habitats -High aspect ratio wings: birds that feed during flight such as swallows, hummingbirds, and swifts, or those that make long migrations, such as plovers, sandpipers, terns, and gulls; sweep back and taper to a slender tip -Dynamic soaring wings: oceanic soaring birds, including albatrosses, shearwaters, and gannets, also have high aspect ratio wings shaped like those of sailplanes. They have long narrow wings, long wingspan, free ride, riding air, a type of flight that involves riding wind differentials -High lift wings: hawks, vultures, eagles, owls, and ospreys, predators that carry heavy loads

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Flight requires energy Flight requires high levels of energy. Several factors are involved in maintaining these high energy levels. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Flight requires energy First, a bird’s four-chambered, rapidly beating heart moves oxygenated blood quickly throughout the body. This efficient circulation supplies cells with the oxygen needed to produce energy. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Flight requires energy Second, a bird’s respiratory system supplies oxygenated air to the lungs when it inhales as well as when it exhales. A bird’s respiratory system consists of lungs and anterior and posterior air sacs. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Key: Breathing cycles Flight requires energy Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Inhalation 1 Inhalation 1 Exhalation 2 Exhalation 2 Trachea During inhalation, oxygenated air passes through the trachea and into the lungs, where gas exchange occurs. Anterior air sacs Lung Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Key: Breathing cycles Flight requires energy Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Inhalation 1 Inhalation 1 Exhalation 2 Exhalation 2 Trachea Most of the air, however, passes directly into the posterior air sacs. Anterior air sacs Lung Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Key: Breathing cycles Flight requires energy Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Inhalation 1 Inhalation 1 Exhalation 2 Exhalation 2 Trachea When a bird exhales deoxygenated air from the lungs, oxygenated air returns to the lungs from the posterior air sacs. Anterior air sacs Lung Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Key: Breathing cycles Flight requires energy Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Inhalation 1 Inhalation 1 Exhalation 2 Exhalation 2 Trachea At the next inhalation, deoxygenated air in the lungs passes into the anterior air sacs. Anterior air sacs Lung Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Key: Breathing cycles Flight requires energy Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Inhalation 1 Inhalation 1 Exhalation 2 Exhalation 2 Finally, at the next exhalation, air passes from the anterior air sacs out of the trachea. Thus, air follows a one-way path in a bird. Trachea Anterior air sacs Lung Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds are endotherms Birds are able to maintain the high energy levels needed for flight because they are endotherms. An endotherm is an animal that maintains a nearly constant body temperature that is not dependent on the environmental temperature. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds are endotherms Feathers reduce heat loss in cold temperatures. The feathers fluff up and trap a layer of air that limits the amount of heat lost. Responses to high temperatures include flattening the feathers and holding the wings away from the body. Birds also pant to increase respiratory heat loss. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Birds are endotherms Birds can live in all environments, from the hot tropics to the frigid Antarctic. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Reproduction in birds Birds reproduce by internal fertilization and lay amniotic eggs usually inside a nest. Bird eggs are encased in a hard shell, unlike the leathery shell of a reptile. Birds do not leave the eggs to hatch on their own. Instead, birds incubate or sit on their eggs to keep them warm. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Reproduction in birds The eggs are turned periodically so that they develop properly. In some species of birds, both parents take turns incubating eggs; in others, only one parent does so. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Reproduction in birds Bird eggs are distinctive, and often the species of bird can be identified just by the color, size, and shape of an egg. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Reproduction Vocabulary (Obj 4): -Monogamy: An individual has only one mate (Bald eagles). 90% of bird species are monogamous. -Polygamy: An individual has more than one mate during a breeding period. -Polygyny: A breeding strategy in which (typically) one male will mate with more than one female during a breeding season. -Polyandry: An individual has more than one mate during a breeding period. Typically one female will mate with more than one male during a breeding season. Practiced by several shorebird species including spotted sandpipers.

More Vocab Continue (Obj 4) -Lek: In many species of grouse, males gather in a collective display ground called a Lek. This is divided into individual territories, each vigorously defended by a displaying male. Usually there is a dominant male and several subordinate males in a lek. Competition among males for females is intense, but females appear to choose the dominant male for mating because social rank correlates with genetic quality. -Incubation: All birds lay eggs that must be incubated by one or both parents. Incubation is process of keeping eggs warm, turning them routinely, and protecting them from predators. -Nest Parasites: Species which lay their eggs in the nests of other species. The other species then will incubate and rear the offspring of the parasite as their own. Examples include the Brown-Headed Cowbird and the European Cuckoo which build no nests at all.  

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds Birds are all very much alike in their basic form and structure. In spite of the basic uniformity of birds, they do exhibit specific adaptations, depending on the environment in which they live and the food they eat. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds The shape of a bird’s beak or bill gives clues to the kind of food the bird eats. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds Hummingbirds, for example, have long beaks that are used for obtaining nectar from flowers. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds Hawks have curved beaks that are adapted for tearing apart their prey. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds Pelicans have huge bills with pouches that they use as nets for capturing fish. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833 Diversity of Birds The short, stout beak of a cardinal is adapted to cracking seeds. Section 31.2 Summary – pages 826 - 833

Beak/Bill Types