Types of Reinforcers Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Preview Question 9: What are the basic types of reinforcers? Reuters/ Corbis

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

Delayed Gratification http://video.pbs.org/video/1967661034

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. Preview Question 10: How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

Psych Giggles

Ratio Schedules Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay

Continued 2) Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.) average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

Interval Schedules Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.) response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

Schedules of Reinforcement

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. Punishment An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. Preview Question 11: How does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. Results in unwanted fears. Conveys no information to the organism. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. Causes aggression towards the agent. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.

Conditioning Reinforcement Punishment Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.

Example 1 This example is classical conditioning because jumping away from hot water is an automatic response. The hot water is the US The jumping back is the UR The toilet flush is the CS The jumping back to the flush alone is the CR

Example 2 2.  Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year. This example is operant conditioning because school performance is a voluntary behavior. The credit card is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases the behavior.

Example 3 3.  Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat belt. This example is operant conditioning because buckling a seat belt is voluntary. The flashing light is a positive punishment. The consequence is given . The behavior of not buckling the seat belt decreases.

Example 4 You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it. This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an automatic response. The flu sickness is the US. The nausea is the UR. The new food is the CS. The nausea to the new food is the CR.

Example 5 A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain perfect attendance during the quarter. His students’ attendance increases dramatically. This example is operant conditioning because attendance is a voluntary behavior. The exemption from the final exam is a negative reinforcement because something is taken away that increases the behavior (attendance).

Example 5 Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to put gloves on when it’s cold. This is an example of operant conditioning because putting gloves on is a voluntary behavior. The consequence is a negative reinforcement because the coldness is taken away and the behavior of putting on gloves increases.

Example 6 John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the white rat. This is an example of classical conditioning because a startle response is an automatic behavior. The loud noise is the US. The startle is the UR. The white rat is the CS. The startle response to the white rat is the CR.

Learned Helplessness Seligman and Maler—Father of Positive Psychology Taught dogs that they were helpless to escape from an electric shock by placing a barrier in the cage to prevent dogs from escaping when they were shocked. Removed the barrier but the dogs made no effort to escape. This “learned helplessness” has been compared to people who are depressed. They feel past/future events are out of their control and they are helpless = depression.

Bio Feedback A technique that uses monitoring devices to provide precise information about internal psychological processes, such as heart rate or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these functions. Control anxiety & headaches

Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). Preview Question 12: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning?

Cont. Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Latent Learning Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. © Herb Terrace Preview Question 14: What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? ©Herb Terrace

Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Reprinted with permission from the American Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) Association for the Advancement of Science, © 2004 AAAS.

Imitation Onset Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.

Bandura's Experiments Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

Bandura Bandura wanted to study aggression in adolescents. He suggested that environment causes behavior, true; but behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this concept reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other.

Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) Born in Russia (Jewish) *humans use various symbols and items that help us to develop cultures *we change, interact and go through development within our cultures *higherﾊthinking skills depend on the internalization of the items we used to develop within our culture and communicate. *used blocks to distinguish children's mastery of the concept from simple memorization **His work was suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for over 20 years after his death. Born in Russia (Jewish) Law degree Unive of Moscow PhD Literature & Linguistics

Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) Several theories regarding learning and development. Theory of Value: what knowledge and skills are worth learning? (varies--past experiences and prior knowledge important to create new ideas--language, culture and social interactions important) Theory of Knowledge: how is knowledge different from belief? (intellectual abilities are specific to the culture in which the child was reared) Incoherent coherence: making mistakes is crucial to child development.

Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 3) Theory of Human Nature: how do humans differ from other species? (we develop as humans through the ways we interact with those around us--ability to develop psychological tools that are "used to gain mastery over one's own behavior and cognition") 4) Theory of Learning: how are knowledge and skills acquired? (through social interaction and language--learning is what leads to the development of higher order thinking) (IMPORTANT CONCEPTS: Zone of Proximal Development (ch 4), Scaffolding (ch 4, ))

Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 5) Theory of Transmission: who is to teach? methods? curriculum? (defined those who are to teach as the "More Knowledgeable Other." (MKO) includes parents, teachers, peers, siblings et.al.--jigsaw method, teacher as collaborator) 6) Theory of Society: what institutions are involved? (allows the learner to develop cognitively through social interactions--language and environment important---learning takes place in ANY environment)

Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 7) Theory of Opportunity: who is to be educated? (socialization is the process of cultural transmission, both unintentional and deliberate--children w/ disabilities should not be separated) 8) Theory of Consensus: why do people disagree? (because they are engaged in class struggle for dominance among competing social groups--the most powerful members of dominant groups create the rules for success and opportunity in society, often denying subordinate groups such success and opportunities)

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. Preview Question 15: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Television and Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Journal Describe one or two of your worst habits. What keeps you from doing this habit? Why don’t you stop? How would it feel if you suddenly stopped? (classical) Think of a time someone gave you a compliment that you did not feel that you deserved. How did it make you feel? (operant)