We move east—but not all the way east. -from Europe to the Near East, we begin our study approx. 9000 BCE

Present day Middle East

The ancient Near East Green area is Fertile Crescent Title: The Ancient Near East Near East people domesticated grain much earlier than the people of Europe; First occurrence in Fertile Crescent. Between 5000 and 4000 BCE, agriculture was developed in Mesopotamia (greek word for “between the rivers”--between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) where flooding and droughts necessitated creating water control systems— these systems may have led to the creation of the first cities in the region Major cultural shift occurred between 4000 and 3000 BCE when agricultural cities developed simultaneously and independently in North and South Mesopotamia These cities eventually incorporated the surrounding areas to create city-states: independent cities with their own gods and governments and social hierarchies. Specialization of skills beyond agriculture led to the creation of huge temples and government buildings. Numerous gods and goddesses were worshipped and people believed the fate of the city was tied to the fate of its primary deity. Large complexes for religion and government business developed in each city as its center Much political upheaval throughout the Ancient Near East; one city-state or culture would dominate and eventually be conquered by another and so on. The ancient Near East Green area is Fertile Crescent

Timeline of Ruling Cultures in Near East c. 559-331 Persia Timeline of Ruling Cultures in Near East c. 612-539 Neo-Babylonia c. 1000-612 Assyria c. 1600-1200 Hittite (Anatolia) c. 1792-1750 Babylonia c. 2150 Lagash c. 2340-2180 Akkad Ancient near east is characterized by many technological advancements and MANY different ruling cultures, because the land lacks many natural defenses, like mtn, great bodies of water running through the middle of it, etc. TIMELINE ACTIVITY c. 3500-2340 BCE Sumer c. 8000-7500 BCE Growth of Jericho 8000 BCE 331 BCE

One of earliest settlements in the Near East in today’s West Bank territory By 8000 BCE, this settlement near a spring grew into a town of mud-brick houses; town covered 6 to 10 acres and may have had as many as 2000 people living in it in 7500 BCE Could have been one of several similar towns—we don’t know Image shows walls and tower used as fortification for the city of Jericho Earliest stone fortifications discovered to date—wall was 5 ft thick and 20 ft high Tower: 28 ft high and 33 ft in diameter with a circular stone stair inside; required sophisticated masonry skill Walls and Tower; Jericho c. 8000 – 7000 BCE, mud brick, rubble, stone

Fired lime plaster. c. 7000-6000 BCE Another early settlement like Jericho; Ain Ghazal in present-day Jordan, 30 painted plaster figures were found Represent some of the art from the early period in the Near East Some almost life size; probably wore wigs and clothing and stood upright Again, not sure what it was made for Title: Human Figure Medium: Fired lime plaster with cowrie shell, bitumen and paint Size: height approx. 35" (90 cm) Date: c. 7000–6000 BCE Source/Museum: Ain Ghazal, Jordan/ National Museum, Amman, Jordan 1 of 30 painted plaster figures found at Ain Ghazal, in present-day Jordan Fired lime plaster. c. 7000-6000 BCE

Sumer: developed between 3500 and 2340 BCE—culture that included independent city states along the rivers of southern Mesopotamia First independent city-state to develop was Uruk Built 2 large architectural complexes in the 1000 acre city; one dedicated to the goddess of love and war Innana, the other (this one) dedicated to the sky god Anu Built up in stages over the course of centuries, so they developed a stepped appearance c. 3100 BCE a white washed temple was established on top of the previous building on the site—the temple was a simple rectangle oriented to the points of a compass Title: Ruins of the White Temple Date: c. 3300–3000 BCE Source/Museum: Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq) Sumer developed between 3500 and 2340 BCE. Uruk was its first independent city-state. This is an image of an architectural complex in Uruk dedicated to the sky god Anu

Human for scale Ur: another Sumerian city-state, civilization south of Uruk built this ziggurat approx. 1000 years after the temple of Innana at Uruk Unlike the temples at Uruk, which got their stepped appearance b/c they were built over; the stepped appearance of this structure dedicated to the moon god Nanna was deliberate Ziggurats were: tall, stepped towers of earthen materials, (mud bricks) often supporting a shrine on top initially created by Sumerians in Southern Mesopotamia between 3500 and 2340 BCE may have developed from the practice of repeatedly building over older structures (resulting in the stepped appearance) like Uruk Temple of Anu elevation also protected them from flooding demonstrated a city’s wealth, prestige and stability Nanna Ziggurat; Ur; c. 2100-2050 BCE Ziggurat of Ur. c. 2100 B.C.E. mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq

Ziggurat of Ur has undergone three separate restorations; first in antiquity, then by Neo-Babylonia, Nabodinus and later in 1980s by Saddam Hussein

Uruk (Warka) vase Alabaster, 3 ft high, c. 3300-3000 BCE Alabaster vase found near the Uruk temple of Inanna Indicates Near Eastern style of storytelling; great economy and clarity Picture organized into registers (bands) Condensed narrative like modern comic books Lower register shows the natural world (landscape), then rams and ewes on the next line Middle register shows nude men carrying baskets of food Top register shows Inanna (goddess of love and war) in front of her shrine accepting an offering from the priest-king Scene usually interpreted as the ritual marriage between the goddess and a human priest-king during the New Year’s festival; a ritual meant to ensure the fertility of crops, animals and people Title: Carved vase (known as the Uruk Vase) Medium: Alabaster Size: height 36' (91 cm) Date: c. 3300–3000 BCE Source/Museum: Uruk (present-day Warka, Iraq) / Iraq Museum, Baghdad (stolen and recovered in 2003) Uruk (Warka) vase Alabaster, 3 ft high, c. 3300-3000 BCE

Votive Figures; c. 2900-2600 BCE; Sumerian These figures excavated from a valley in Iraq indicate another aspect of Sumerian god/goddess worship Represent temple donors in prayer to their deities—large eyes indicate importance of approaching a deity with an “attentive gaze” Many of these figures are women Simple inscription might say “one who offers prayer”—longer inscriptions on the figure might detail all the things the donor had accomplished in god’s honor Sculpture was intended as a stand-in; at perpetual attention, making eye contact with the god and chanting the donor’s praises Show conventions of Sumerian art with big eyes, simplified bodies and faces and clothing that emphasized the cylindrical shape of the body; like the White face of Uruk, the brows would have been inlaid Women are shown just as thick and massive as men; just no beards and different clothes Votive Figures; c. 2900-2600 BCE; Sumerian Votive Figures; c. 2900-2600 BCE; Sumerian

- Developed 1000 years after Uruk Artwork from Ur - Developed 1000 years after Uruk Ur: another Sumerian city-state, civilization south of Uruk built this ziggurat approx. 1000 years after the temple of Innana at Uruk Unlike the temples at Uruk, which got their stepped appearance b/c they were built over; the stepped appearance of this structure dedicated to the moon god Nanna was deliberate Ziggurats were: tall, stepped towers of earthen materials, (mud bricks) often supporting a shrine on top initially created by Sumerians in Southern Mesopotamia between 3500 and 2340 BCE may have developed from the practice of repeatedly building over older structures (resulting in the stepped appearance) like Uruk Temple of Anu elevation also protected them from flooding demonstrated a city’s wealth, prestige and stability Nanna Ziggurat; Ur; c. 2100-2050 BCE

Lyre with Bull’s head from Ur (left) Front panel (right) Sumerians worked in precious materials from about 3000 BCE on Many of their creations were decorated with or in the shape of animals, like this lyre (kind of harp)—from a ROYAL TOMB Uses wood, gold, lapis and shell; head is a bearded bull—very lifelike despite the beard (the lapis had to be imported from Afghanistan which shows the widespread trade in the Near East) Front panel shows four registers depicting different scenes: Bottom: scorpion man; scorpion men are associated with the land of demons, the mtns of sunrise and sunset; part of the journey of the dead—shown with a gazelle on hind legs Next row: trio of animal musicians—shows how instruments of the time were played; donkey plays a lyre while a bear holds it still and a seated animal plays a rattle; sistrum Next row: animal attendants bringing food and drinks to a feast Top row: probably represents the deceased (man). Long hair and full-beard suggest semi-diving status Imagery may have been inspired by the Epic of Gilgamesh (1st great literary epic) that told of strange beasts like scorpion men Story is likely based on Sumerian legends dating back thousands of years about a ruler, Gilgamesh (probably real ruler) and his close friend Enkidu—their journeys together and Gilgamesh’s search for immortality after Enkidu dies Introduction of writing and literature lets us study the “iconography”—symbolism—of works of art; not just guess Title: The Great Lyre with bull’s head Medium: Wood with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, bitumen, and shell, reassembled in modern wood support Size: height of head 14" (35.6 cm) height of front panel 13" (33 cm) maximum length of lyre 55½" (140 cm), height of upright back arm 46½" (117 cm) Date: c. 2550–2400 BCE Source/Museum: Royal tomb, Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq) / University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia Title: Front panel, the sound box of the Great Lyre Medium: Wood with shell inlaid in bitumen Size: height 12¼ X 4½" (31.1 X 11cm) Source/Museum: Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq) / University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia (T4-29C)

Head of a man (known as Akkadian ruler) From Nineveh Akkadians were Semitic speaking people (same language origin of Hebrew and Arabic) from N of Uruk (adopted Sumerian culture, but spoke different language) Conquered Samaria and ruled for 300 years Head is the earliest major work of hollow cast copper sculpture known in the Ancient Near East One of few Akkadian artifacts that remains Probably a generalized idea of a ruler—not a specific one Head was probably intentionally mutilated to take its power Title: Head of a man (known as Akkadian ruler) Medium: Copper Alloy Size: height 14⅜" (36.5 cm) Date: c. 2300–2200 BCE Source/Museum: Nineveh (present-day Kuyunjik, Iraq) / Iraq Museum, Baghdad Head of a man (known as Akkadian ruler) From Nineveh c. 2300-2200 BCE Copper alloy

http://youtu.be/OY79AuGZDNI Stele of Naram-Sin; c. 2220 BCE; Akkadian Memorializes a victory by Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin over people of the Zagros Mountains; one of 1st works of art made to commemorate a single achievement Hieratic scale: bigger = more important Naram-Sin considered himself a god-king; a new concept Breaks with visual tradition of Mesopotamia by using wavy ground lines Artist: Akkadian Title: Stele of Naram-Sin Medium: Limestone Size: height 6'6" (1.98 m) Date: c. 2220–2184 BCE Source/Museum: Musée du Louvre, Paris http://youtu.be/OY79AuGZDNI

Statue of Gudea, ruled Lagash c. 2090 BCE In 2180 BCE, Guti people conquered the Akkadians—only ruled for a brief time before the Sumerians regained control Lagash; a Sumerian city-state the remained independent throughout the period Gudea was Lagash ruler and he made and restored many temples where he placed statues of himself—representing himself as governor and the embodiment of just rule The images show him as a strong, peaceful, pious ruler worthy of divine favor Always shown with a bare shoulder and barefooted This sculpture shows him with a vessel from which life-giving water flows in 2 streams down his body Statue only 2 ½ ft tall—but imposing nonetheless—emphasizes the power centers of the body; eyes, head, muscled chest and arms Title: Votive Statue of Gudea Medium: Diorite Size: height 29" (73.7 cm) Date: c. 2090 BCE Source/Museum: Girsu (present-day Telloh, Iraq) / Musée du Louvre, Paris Statue of Gudea, ruled Lagash c. 2090 BCE

Periods of turmoil alternated with periods of stable rule in Mesopotamia until Hammurabi united the region as the Babylonians in 1792 One of Hammurabi’s greatest achievements was this written legal code describing the laws of his kingdom and the penalties for breaking them. Depicts Hammurabi (standing) having a conversation with the sun (and justice) god, Shamash—suggesting divine origin of laws Groundbreaking as it established a rule of law based on a written code, rather than the whim of a ruler Title: Stele of Hammurabi (pronounced Steely) Medium: Diorite Size: height of stele approx. 7' (2.13 m) height of relief 28“ (71.1 cm) Date: c. 1792–1750 BCE Source/Museum: Susa (present-day Shush, Iran) / Musée du Louvre, Paris

Outside Mesopotamia, other cultures flourished in the Near East Outside Mesopotamia, other cultures flourished in the Near East (the Persians—modern Iran) ultimately conquered them all, but one culture; Hittites in Anatolia (modern Turkey) ruled for a time c. 1600 BCE Large Hittite empire stretched to the south near Egypt where they came into conflict with each other Hittites may have been the first people to work in iron—noted for their fine metalwork and imposing palace citadels with fortified gateways This gate is an example from the Hittite capitol—shows lions rendered in high relief—lions seem to emerge from the building stone Title: Lion Gate Medium: Limestone Date: c. 1400 BCE Source/Museum: Hattusha (near present-day Boghazkoy, Turkey) Outside Mesopotamia, other cultures flourished in the Near East

Ishtar gate, ceremonial entrance to the city. Babylon At end of 7th century BCE, the Babylonians (who still existed in the Near East) joined forces with other powers to conquer the Assyrians—new culture called Neo-Babylonian Built temples dedicated to the Babylonian gods throughout their empire—transformed Babylon (hub of the empire) into one of the most splendid cities of its time Ishtar Gate was the ceremonial entrance to the city—symbol of Babylonian power Blue glazed bricks used (film of glass laid over the brick and fired to melt on it) with gold, turquoise and blue molded bricks decorating the processional path Babylon’s famous hanging gardens were part of the ancient wonders of the world Title: Ishtar Gate and throne room wall Medium: Glazed brick Size: height of gate originally 40 feet (12.2 m) with towers rising 100 feet (30.5 m) Date: c. 575 BCE Source/Museum: Reconstructed in a Berlin museum, originally from Babylon (Present-day Iraq) Vorderasiatisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz Ishtar gate, ceremonial entrance to the city. Babylon height of gate originally 40 feet with towers rising 100 feet (30.5 m) c. 575 BCE

Title: Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes receive tribute Persian rulers established a new artistic style that blended many of the conventions from other culture’s styles in the Near East. Title: Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes receive tribute 518–c. 460 BCE In 500s BCE; the Persians, formerly nomadic people from Europe area began to seize power in Mesopotamia—eventually established a vast empire that had a lot of influence on other ancient cultures—only the Greeks successfully defended themselves against them Persian rulers established a new artistic style that blended many of the conventions from other culture’s styles in the Near East This audience hall is on a raised platform (Assyrian style)—relief images show animal combat (common Near East theme), tiered ranks of royal guards and delegations of tribute bearers Animal combat emphasizes the ferocity of the leaders and their men Elegant drawing, balanced composition and sleek modeling of the figures suggests the Persians were influenced by (and maybe used) Greek artists Originally, panels were painted in rich colors with metal objects covered in gold leaf Title: Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes Date: 518–c. 460 BCE Source/Museum: Ceremonial Complex, Persepolis Iran Title: Darius and Xerxes Receiving Tribute Medium: Limestone Size: height 8'4" (2.54 m) Date: 491–486 BCE Source/Museum: Detail of a relief from the stairway leading to the Apadana (ceremonial complex), Persepolis, Iran / Courtesy the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago

Key Achievements of the Near East: -invented writing and record keeping; provides us with much information about the cultures -invented metal coinage -built massive palaces called ziggurats -created political and religious artwork designed to reinforce the power of their rulers and gods (continued on next slide)

Written Language: -3100 BCE; Sumerians invent writing for record keeping—originally pictographs (pictures) -2900-2400 BCE; pictures evolve into phonograms; symbols representing the sounds of words (true written language) -700 BCE; highly abstract system of marks for writing is developed -Thousands of Sumerian tablets document the evolution of writing and arithmetic; also contain the origins of the Epic of Gilgamesh; world’s first literary epic Cuneiform Writing

Title: Cylinder seal from Sumer and its impression Medium: Lapis lazuli Size: height, 1⅝" (4.1 cm) Date: c. 2550–2400 BCE Source/Museum: Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq) Cylinder seals also developed in Near East as method of “printing” words or images into soft clay, c. 3300-3100 BCE

Stele of Hammurabi; c. 1792-1750 BCE, 7 ft tall. -Hammurabi, ruler of Babylon, created this written legal code describing the laws of his kingdom and the penalties for breaking them. -Depicts Hammurabi (standing) having a conversation with the sun (and justice) god, Shamash—suggesting divine origin of laws -Groundbreaking as it established a rule of law based on a written code, rather than the whim of a ruler Title: Stele of Hammurabi (pronounced Steely) Medium: Diorite Size: height of stele approx. 7' (2.13 m) height of relief 28“ (71.1 cm) Date: c. 1792–1750 BCE Source/Museum: Susa (present-day Shush, Iran) / Musée du Louvre, Paris

c. 560–546 BCE; First minted under Croesus, king of Lydia Front of gold coin; c. 560–546 BCE; First minted under Croesus, king of Lydia Back of gold coin Daric; c. 300 BCE; first coin to depict ruling monarch; minted under Darius I of Persia; ½” diameter Technique: Coining Money—in 7th century BCE, Lydian’s on Western Anatolia (present day Turkey) adapted the Sumerian seal idea to make coins of regular weights for use as money. Until 525 BCE, coins only stamped on one side (square depression on back; seen above) Darius I of Persia, first to put image of King (himself) on coins; using ruler’s images on the coins so the coins served as political propaganda, as well as money. B/c coins depict rulers, and we generally know when rulers ruled different kingdoms, coins found in excavation help to date the surrounding objects (relative dating) Title: Daric Medium: Gold Size: Diameter approximately 1/2" (1.45cm) Date: 4th century BCE Source/Museum: A coin first minted under Darius I of Persia / Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

-elevation also protected them from flooding Nanna Ziggurat; Ur; c. 2100-2050 BCE Ziggurat: tall, stepped tower of earthen materials, often supporting a shrine -initially created by Sumerians in Southern Mesopotamia between 3500 and 2340 BCE -may have developed from the practice of repeatedly building over older structures (resulting in the stepped appearance) -elevation also protected them from flooding -demonstrated a city’s wealth, prestige and stability Made of mud-brick This ziggurat dedicated to the moon god Nanna, or Sin 3 sets of stairs converge at the entrance on top—where a temple or shrine was located Thought of a bridge between the earth and the heavens; meeting place for humans and their gods Title: Nanna Ziggurat, Ur Date: c. 2100–2050 BCE Source/Museum: Present-day Muqaiyir, Iraq

Votive Figures; c. 2900-2600 BCE; Sumerian -Representation of temple donors in prayer to their deities—large eyes indicate importance of approaching a deity with an “attentive gaze. “ Political and Religious Art work: Artist: Sumerian Title: Votive Figures Medium: Limestone, alabaster, and gypsum Size: height of largest figure approx. 30" ( 76.3 cm) Date: c. 2900–2600 BCE Source/Museum: The Square Temple, Eshnunna (present-day Tell Asmar, Iraq). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Artist: Akkadian Title: Stele of Naram-Sin Medium: Limestone Size: height 6'6" (1.98 m) Date: c. 2220–2184 BCE Source/Museum: Musée du Louvre, Paris Stele of Naram-Sin; c. 2220 BCE; Akkadian -Memorializes a victory by Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin; one of 1st works of art made to commemorate a single achievement -Hieratic scale: bigger = more important -Naram-Sin considered himself a god-king; a new concept

Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions; Assyrian; c. 850 BCE Later Mesopotamian Art: Assyrians ruled from 800s BCE to early 600s BCE This image showing ruler Assurnsirpal shifts Near Eastern style from commemorating timelessness to narrative Artist: Assyrian Title: Assurnasirpal II Killing Lions Medium: Alabaster Size: height approx. 39" (99.1 cm) Date: c. 850 BCE Source/Museum: Palace complex of Assurnasirpal II, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, Iraq) / The British Museum, London

Static/timeless Action/visual narrative Assurnasirpal