FIGURE 3.1. Most projections of locations transform three-dimensional locations into two-dimensional locations as a geographic representation and basis for cartographic representation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.2. A world map from 1801 using a Mercator projection is just one example of many from the last 400 years. From www.davidrumsey.com. Reprinted by permission of David Rumsey. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.3. Illustration from 1862 showing 15 projections for different areas of the earth. The basic typology is still helpful today in choosing an appropriate projection for a desired geographic representation and cartographic representation. From www.davidrumsey.com. Reprinted by permission of David Rumsey. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.4. Some fundamental abstractions of the earth used in choosing projections for a desired geographic representation and cartographic representation. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.6. Positional uncertainty when coordinate system datum is unknown in North America (NAD27 or NAD83). From Wieczorek, J., Guo, Q., & Hijmans, R. J. (2004). The point-radius method for geo-referencing locality descriptions and calculating associated uncertainty. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 18(8), 745–767. Reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals). From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3. 7. U. S. continental State–Plane Zones (NAD83) FIGURE 3.7. U.S. continental State–Plane Zones (NAD83). These zones are commonly used in the United States for state geographic information activities and their use can be required by state or local statute. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.8. The Peters projection is very similar to this Gall projection. A compromise projection, its often praised for its suitability for global mapping, but in fact it distorts both areas and shapes. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.9. A Mercator projection showing extremely distorted areas near the north and south poles. Distortions can be desirable, but generally they promote ill-suited cartographic representations. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 3.10. GIS organization as an arrangement of hardware, software, and peripherals. From A Primer of GIS, 2nd edition, by Francis Harvey. Copyright 2016 by The Guilford Press.