ECOLOGY

Syllabus You are required only to study any one ecosystem, and to know five animals and five plants from your ecosystem.

Organism Distribution

Plants / Flora Grasses Clover Buttercups Dandelions Daisies Nettles Poppies Thistles Dock Primrose Bluebell

Animals / Fauna H = herbivore, C = carnivore, O = omnivore, D = detritus feeder (detritus is dead and decomposing organisms) Earthworms (D) Caterpillars (H) Rabbits (H) Snails (H) Ladybirds (C) Badgers (O) Slugs (H) Bees (H) Foxes (C) Spiders (C) Wasps (H, C) Hedgehogs (O) Beetles (C, H, O) Butterflies (H) Thrushes (C) Aphids (H) Moths (H) Blackbirds (O)

The study of an ecosystem involves studying a number of sample habitats, as follows: Mapping identifying plants and animals estimating the numbers of plants and animals measuring the environmental (abiotic) factors presenting the information

What to observe in an Ecosystem Form a general overview of the area to be studied: Name the types of habitat within the ecosystem as each habitat will have its own populations of organisms which interact with each other and with the non-living environment.

Habitats within the Woodland Habitat: Soil, ditch, oak aerial system, hedgerow, stone wall, oak root system. Page 1 of Ecology Report

Sketch of Ecosystem Mark off the sample area by using poles with string or flags or by other visible markers Draw a sketch of Ecosystem including features such as a road, wall, path, trees, bushes etc Page 3 of Ecology Report

ecosystem-video

Qualitative survey A study determining the types of plants or organisms presence/absence in a habitat.

Carry out a qualitative study and note the diversity of flora and fauna in the ecosystem. Use an identification Key to identify five animals and five plants Note the habitat in which each organism was found. Note a structural or behavioural adaptation of the organism. Repeat this procedure to identify any five plants Page 4 of Ecology Report

Keys A key is used to identify and name organisms It consists of pairs of questions to which you answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Continue until a name is reached which matches your specimen

ECOSYSTEM FAUNA FLORA Woodland Owl, woodlouse, deer, centipede. Arum lily, oak tree, ivy, holly, moss Grassland Slug, snail, earthworm, field mouse, spider. Daisy, grass, dandelion, clover, plantain Hedgerow Butterfly, wren, rabbit, hover fly, hedgehog Herb Robert, blackthorn, cow parsley, goose grass, hawthorn.

Qualitative V’s Quantitative study A qualitative study records the presence or absence of species. A quantitative study records the number of each species.

Errors may arise in the study of an ecosystem in the following ways: Human Error - mistakes may be made in judgment and recording Conditions changing in the ecosystem over time Accidental discoveries may be made Sample size - the habitats studied may not accurately reflect the overall ecosystem

Measure Abiotic Factors Page 9 of Report

Abiotic and biotic factors

Observe the influential abiotic factors i.e. if it is exposed, sheltered, flat, on a slope, what direction does it face, influence of wind direction, intensity, drainage, etc. What is the influence of the non-living(abiotic) components on the flora and fauna of the ecosystem? Page 9 of Report

Choice of Habitat Relationship between an organism’s suitability to its habitat and abiotic factors to include a measurement of any three abiotic factors: pH Temperature (air and ground or aquatic) Light intensity Air current Mineral content Percentage air in soil Percentage water in soil Percentage humus Degree of exposure Slope

Light Intensity – Light meter Used to measure the light intensity in units called lux. Grasses grow better at higher light intensities

Soil pH – pH Meter Soil pH will favour some plants and therefore some animals

Wind speed - Anemometer

Rainfall – Rainfall gauge is used to measure the amount of rainfall in mm.

Air Temperature - Thermometer Air temperature differences in different parts of the grassland will affect how well the plants (and animals) grow

Adaptations of Organisms to their Environment Need to know structural, competitive or behavioural adaptation by organisms Note an adaptation feature by any organism in your selected ecosystem

An adaptation is a process, change, method, characteristic or feature that an organism or species possesses, develops or evolves that suits/adjusts the organism to its environment to increase its chances of survival and reduce competition. Examples: Ladybird warning colouration Field mice are nocturnal: predator avoidance. Page 11 of Report

Provides camouflage and protects animals from predators e.g. woodlice Adaptation Benefit Beak Shape adapted to method of feeding e.g. pointed beak suitable for probing the ground for earthworms e.g. blackbird Slimy mucus Prevents e.g. snails, earthworms, etc. from drying out as it travels across dry terrain Body colour Provides camouflage and protects animals from predators e.g. woodlice Sharp claws For digging e.g. badger Tail Aids balance e.g. Squirrel on tree tops Bright body colour Deters predators e.g. ladybird (also releases toxic fluids to deter predators)

Hairy skin and fur Traps a layer of air – insulation Long canine teeth Kill prey and tear flesh Speed of predator Usually faster than its prey Long/big ears Good hearing to detect predator Nocturnal Predator avoidance e.g. field mice

Identify and use various apparatus required for collection methods in an ecological study Collection apparatus Name: How used: Type of organism collected: Page 12 of Report

Pooter Used for picking up very small animals e.g. spiders & insects. Suck through mouthpiece (end of which is covered with muslin) and the animal is taken into jar through the hose.

Beating tray This is a white tray, cotton sheet or large sheet of white paper. It is placed under a bush or tree branch. The tree branch is shaken suddenly and vigorously. Insects and other invertebrates fall onto the tray.

Pitfall Trap Jam jar buried in ground and covered with raised flat stone. Used to collect small animals that walk along the surface of the ground e.g. beetles, spiders centipedes, woodlice, beetles, etc.

Sweep Net Used to collect e.g. insects & spiders from tall grass

Tullgren Funnel Used to collect small animals from leaf litter and soil samples e.g. worms, spiders by heating the soil sample from a lamp above causing the animals to move down out of the soil by and fall through a wire gauze into a beaker.

Mammal Trap Used to collect small mammals e.g. mice, voles, etc.

Cryptozoic trap A piece of wood or stone which is left on the ground. After a suitable interval, animals such as slugs, woodlice, centipedes and millipedes will be found underneath.

Collection Methods Method Used for collecting Cryptozoic Small nocturnal animals e.g. slugs, woodlice Pitfall Small animals that walk along the surface of the ground e.g. beetles, spiders Tullgren funnel Small animals from leaf litter and soil samples e.g. worms, spiders Pooter Insects and spiders from the surface of leaves and leaf litter Sweep Insects from long grass and vegetation Mammal trap Small mammals e.g. mice , shrew

Look for inter-relationships between the various living organisms in the ecosystem Explain and identify the role of the organism in energy transfers. Construct food chains A food web A pyramid of numbers Page 10 of Report

Quantitative survey Quantitative Study provides a record of the numbers of plants and animals present in a sample area of the selected ecosystem

Quantitative study Quantitative studies can be either: Subjective estimates (i.e. a personal judgement is made as to the number) Objective estimates (i.e. an independent method of calculating numbers is used) Subjective methods are not recommended, because they depend on individual judgements, which may vary from person to person.

A quantative study of plants in a habitat involves using: quadrats, which are examined for: (a) Percentage cover of plants or stationary animals. (b) Frequency transects: (a) Line transect (rope marked at intervals – record what touches the line). (b) Belt transect (equivalent to quadrats taken in a line – methods used are the same as for quadrats).

A Quadrat Usually square shaped A frame that forms a known area usually 0.5m X 0.5m = 0.25m2 Used for random sampling of plants or some slow moving animals

Gridded Quadrat Page 6 of Report

1. Determining the Percentage Cover of Sedentary Species – Subjective Estimate Measured using a quadrat The area of quadrat covered by each species (five flora) of interest is estimated as a percentage of the total quadrat area – not very accurate.

Percentage Cover procedure Throw a pencil at random Place a quadrat on the spot Determine the approximate % of the area of the quadrat that is covered by a plant species Repeat for 10 throws Results are expressed as a percentage of the total quadrat area Tabulate results Page 6 of Report Go through each step and explain

2. Determining the Percentage Cover of Sedentary Species – Objective Estimate Measured using a grid quadrat the total number of squares (25) is divided by the number of squares (top and right sides only) touched by the flora of interest (e.g. 10) Much more accurate.

Percentage Cover procedure Throw a pencil at random Place a grid quadrat on the spot Record the number of plants touching the top and right sides of grid quadrat / each sampling point Repeat for 10 throws Tabulate results Page 6 of Report Go through each step and explain

Quantitative % cover study of plants Complete table by recording the no of hits scored by each plant touched by the needle at each sampling point Record total hits scored by each plant Record total no of sampling points for the 10 quadrat throws i.e.250 Calculate % cover by using formula Graph ( Use bar graph ) Next slide has procedure which can be displayed on screen during activity

Tabulation of results Auto Calculations Completed table will look something like this: This has been done on Excel a spreadsheet programme, where formulae are entered to compute the Total hits and the % Cover Graph can be drawn ( double click to show graph ) Auto Calculations

Plot Graph X axis = Organisms Y axis = % Frequency Page 5 of Report Give time to draw graph

Frequency The probability of finding a named plant within the sample area in a number of quadrats May be expressed as a percent of the total number of quadrats sampled This method is quick and percentages of organisms can be calculated easily The more throws and frequency checks you do, the more accurate your end-frequency percentage results will be Definition from Teacher Guidelines P 22

Percentage Frequency Procedure Throw the quadrat randomly Record the presence or absence of a named organism within each quadrat Repeat for 10 throws Tabulate results Page 8 of Report

A quantitative study of plants Frequency Explain how to fill in data on table: For example daisy. Record presence (Y) or absence ( N) for each quadrat throw Fill in Total no ( by adding the total number of boxes containing daisy ( Y) ) Express as Frequency ( ratio) i.e. ( Total /10) % Frequency: No. quadrats containing plant/ No. quadrats thrown Next slide shows procedure which can be left on screen If percentage is required multiply frequency by 100

Tabulation of results Auto Calculations Completed table will look something like this: This has been done on Excel, a spreadsheet programme, where formulae are entered to compute the Frequency and the % Frequency Graph can be drawn ( Click and a completed graph will appear ) Will give detailed instructions on how to use excel spreadsheet later

Conduct a Quantitative Survey of Plants and measure 3 abiotic factors Method: Line Transect Put a rope straight across the habitat Walk beside the line and record the name of each plant touching the line at a certain point. Repeat all along the length of the line transect. Record 3 abiotic factors at each point Combine the results to establish plant distribution. Relate the distribution to the variation of the environmental factors.

To conduct a quantitative study of organisms along a belt transect Record % cover or number of a named organism in each quadrat along the transect Position of quadrat on belt transect Organism Name % Cover = No. of hits  100 No. of points on quadrat

Capture field mice using small mammal traps. Conduct a Quantitative Survey of fast moving Animals, e.g. fieldmouse population Day 1 Capture field mice using small mammal traps. Record the number of captured mice e.g. 20. Mark each with a dab of red paint on the belly surface. Release each at their capture site. Allow time for the mice to readjust to normal conditions.

Day 2 Capture field mice as before. Record the number captured e.g. 18. Record the number of recaptures (marked mice) e.g. 6. Return the mice to the habitat at their capture site.

the capture–recapture method, i.e. Number = C 1st × C 2nd _____________ M 2nd

Calculation:  Population = Day 1 Captures x Day 2 Captures         Number of Recaptures = 20 x 18         6 = 60 mice

Analysis Prepare a brief report of the results obtained Identify possible sources of error in such a study.

Errors During Fieldwork Bias: purposely choosing sample sites to get ‘good results’ or avoid work. Too Few Sample Sites: may not give accurate representative results. Surveyor Variation: students vary in ability, commitment and interest. Equipment Quality: measurement and trapping success will be affected.

5. Changing Nature: results may depend on the time of day, season or year. 6. Chance: cannot survey every square centimeter so even with many sites some species may be missed. 7. Improper Trapping Techniques: all evasive species may not be captured and/or insufficient numbers captured in follow up surveying.