Cultural Change 1450-1750: Religion and Science Objectives: To explore the roots of tension between science and religion To examine the European Reformation movements and significance To examine the spread of Christianity around the world To look at and explore religious change in China, India, and Islam To explore why the Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe and its limited scope elsewhere To explore the implications of the Scientific Revolution in world societies in the Early Modern Era

Beginnings Christianity today is no longer a European religion. Fully 60% of Christians live outside of Europe and English North America During the early modern two developments shaped our world today: A. Christianity became a global religion B. The Scientific Revolution created new approaches to understanding the world Europeans were central actors in these but not alone People who converted helped to shape Christianity Science received different receptions around the globe

Globalizing Christianity In 1500 limited mostly to Europe with a few exceptions: Ethiopia, some Copts in Egypt, Nestorians in Central Asia Roman Catholics vs. Orthodox in Europe Defensive against Islam: Loss of Constantinople to Turks in 1453, Ottomans against Austria to 1683

Reformation in Europe from 1517 Various forces were pushing for reformation of Catholic Church by 1500 (concerns over papal power, indulgences, education of priests) In 1517 Martin Luther posted 95 Essays on his church door in Wittenberg Germany where he was the priest Asked for debate about certain practices and abuses in the church Luther’s protest was also deeply grounded in theological issues (core beliefs of the church like sacraments, how are people saved) Questioned in particular the special position of the clerical hierarchy (especially the Pope) and certain doctrines of the church

Schism: Division of the Church Luther’s questions resulted in many changes in Christianity in Europe Luther was excommunicated and began to form his own doctrines he felt reflected “true” Christianity Political, social, and economic tensions of the time fed the reformation Some monarchs used Luther to justify independence from the Pope Gave new religious legitimacy to middle classes through freeing of church from hierarchy Commoners used reformation to protest against the social order Peasants Revolt in Germany 1520’s

Women in the Reformation Although many women were attracted to “Protestantism” as the new sects were known, the reformation did not really give them greater roles in society or in the church Protestants ended veneration of Mary and the saints including the female saints Closed convents and did away with nuns, closing off an alternative to marriage especially for upper class women Only Quakers gave women official roles in the church Education of women in Protestant countries became the norm since reading of the Bible was necessary for salvation, and women educated most children at home

Other Repercussions The printing press helped to spread the ideas and beliefs of the reformers rapidly As the reformation spread, it split into many various groups competing with each other (there are over 1500 Protestant sects in the US today) Religious disunity created more volatility in Europe’s political systems Religious Wars: 1545-1558 in Holy Roman Empire, French Wars of Religion 1562-1598, the Thirty Years War 1618-48 throughout Central Europe and Scandinavia. By 1650 political issues had superseded religious ones.

The Counter Reformation Catholics had to respond in some way to the Reformation. Obviously some things HAD to be changed. Council of Trent 1545: Corrected many abuses such as indulgences and Papal greed Emphasized education of priests in religious doctrine (which had not occurred before) and more closely supervised them. Enforced cleric celibacy Focus on individual piety and spirituality to counter reformed churches on this. Also Inquisition to crack down on dissidents in the Church Creation of new religious orders to spread “reformed” Catholicism such as the Jesuits

Ideological Repercussions Throughout Europe, the reformation encouraged skepticism toward established ways of doing things in politics, religion, social standing, and economics Individualism in religion became more acceptable rather than communal religious belief. Toleration of others became more normal Over time, this habit of independent thought led to skepticism about all types of revealed religion. Revealed means divinely inspired. Led to the development of non religious philosophy

Expansion into the world Christianity was one motivator for European expansion into the world All Europeans used spreading Christianity as a reason for expansion regardless of whether this was the actual practice Iberians used expansion as a form of crusade continuing their tradition of liberating areas from Islam or paganism. Most Europeans combined some religious impetus with self interest English, French, and Dutch explorers were less likely to cite religious motives when expanding spheres of influence, but did some work of conversion of native peoples

Imperialism and conversion Settlers and traders brought their religion with them and whether they were active in spreading it or not, their religious ideas informed their societies and had effects on the native peoples Missionaries were also successful in places in converting many native peoples to Christianity. Primarily Catholic Missionaries were most successful in Spanish America and the Philippines

Conversion and Syncretism in Spanish America Population collapse, conquest, and European settlement made native peoples receptive to Christianity as the religion of the conquerors. Europeans claimed exclusive religious truth, tried to destroy native religions rather than to accommodate them Some campaigns to destroy the old religions were undertaken. Most of the scriptures of the old religions were destroyed. Some resistance to conversion occurred occasionally breaking into rebellion against the priests. (New Mexico in 1680 is an example.) But for the most part the process was more organic (was a process that occurred naturally as a result of conquest)

Conversion and Syncretism in Spanish America More commonly a blending of religious traditions took place Local gods remained influential frequently taking on aspects of Christian saints (Virgen de Guadalupe is an example: the Aztec corn goddess and the Virgin Mary) The “new” Christianity took on the rhythms of pre-colonial life, that is ceremonies and rituals became focused on those things that the natives held to be important, particularly in the countryside Some church leaders of the laity (parish members) were drawn from upper social ranks of the native peoples who essentially carried on the roles of native priests in society (without human sacrifice of course) Many old rituals became Christianized and new saints and miracles were reported and became part of Latin American cultural traditions

Jesuits in China: Comparing to Latin America Christianity in China Reached China during Ming and Qing dynasties Needed Chinese government permission to operate Could not go in and force conversion of Chinese as in America Jesuit Order particularly used in China:targeted Chinese elites No mass conversions in China:most elites remained Confucian However, appreciated the Jesuits mathematical, astronomical, technological, and cartographical skills, things the Chinese valued

China and Christianity to 1750 About 250,000 Chinese became Christians between 1550 and 1800 Christianity did not offer much that China needed Christianity was an “exclusive” religion which could not embrace much of Chinese culture Efforts of Jesuits to blend or synthesize Chinese beliefs with Christianity were stopped by the papacy and other missionaries by the early 1700’s effectively stopping any progress towards conversion in China until the late 19th century.