Modeling and Simulation of 4D PET-CT and PET-MR Images Charalampos Tsoumpas, MPhys, MSc, DIC, PhD, Anastasios Gaitanis, MSc, PhD  PET Clinics  Volume 8, Issue 1, Pages 95-110 (January 2013) DOI: 10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003 Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 1 Human anatomy of the extended NCAT or XCAT phantoms. Such details as circulatory system, organs, glands, skeleton, muscles, and respiratory motion are illustrated (top). Respiratory positions at end-expiration and end-inspiration of the enhanced four-dimensional XCAT are illustrated (bottom left and bottom right, respectively). (From Segars WP, Tsui BM. MCAT to XCAT: the evolution of 4-D computerized phantoms for imaging research. Proc IEEE 2009;97(12):1960–3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2009.2022417; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 2 Frontal and lateral views of patient-dependent adult male phantoms as at 50th percentile standing height and 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentile body mass. (From Johnson PB, Whalen SR, Wayson M, et al. Hybrid patient-dependent phantoms covering statistical distributions of body morphometry in the U.S. adult and pediatric population. Proc IEEE 2009;97(12):2068, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2009.2032855; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 3 Cardiac-gated (top) and respiratory-gated (bottom) CT images generated using four-dimensional XCAT. (From Segars WP, Mahesh M, Beck TJ, et al. Realistic CT simulation using the four-dimensional XCAT phantom. Med Phys 2008;35(8):3806, http://dx.doi.org/10.1118/1.2955743; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 4 Generated phantom (left) and simulated PET image sequence of a dynamic PCAT simulation with 82Rb PET tracer. (From Fung G, Higuchi T, Park M, et al. Development of a four-dimensional digital phantom for tracer kinetic modeling and analysis of dynamic perfusion PET and SPECT simulation studies. In: 2011 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference. 2011. p. 4195, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/NSSMIC.2011.6153803; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 5 Three-dimensional frontal views of the entire series of UF hybrid pediatric and adult phantoms. (From Lee C, Lodwick D, Hurtado J, et al. The UF family of reference hybrid phantoms for computational radiation dosimetry. Phys Med Biol 2010;52(12):354, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/55/2/002; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 6 Simulated PET-MR imaging acquisitions at inspiration and expiration phases of multiple volunteers with different respiration style. All images displayed in a fused style with the same color scale for PET and gray-scale for MR imaging. (From Tsoumpas C, Buerger C, King AP, et al. Fast generation of four-dimensional PET-MR data from real dynamic MR acquisitions. Phys Med Biol 2011;56(20):6610, http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/56/20/005; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 7 Enhanced cardiac model of the four-dimensional XCAT based on multidetector CT. This model has been developed for males and females. LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; RA, right atrium; RV, right ventricle. (From Segars WP, Tsui BMW. MCAT to XCAT: the evolution of 4-D computerized phantoms for imaging research. Proc IEEE 2009;97(12):1962, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2009.2022417; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 8 Centerline-based (a) and surface-based (b) methods to assign variable wall properties. (From Xiong G, Figueroa C, Xiao N, et al. Simulation of blood flow in deformable vessels using subject-specific geometry and spatially varying wall properties. Int J Numer Method Biomed Eng 2010;27(7):1006, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cnm.1404; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 9 Calculations of the normal stress for end-diastole, end-isovolumic contraction, and end-ejection scaled between 0 kPa (dark blue) and 10 kPa (red). (From Nordsletten DA, Niederer SA, Nash MP, et al. Coupling multi-physics models to cardiac mechanics. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2011;104:85, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2009.11.001; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 10 The full vascular tree (upper left), vessels belonging to compartment one (upper right), vessels belonging to compartment two (lower left), and vessels belonging to compartment three (lower right). (From Cookson A, Lee J, Michler C, et al. A novel porous mechanical framework for modeling the interaction between coronary perfusion and myocardial mechanics. J Biomech 2012;104(1–3):853, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2011.11.026; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 11 PET images. (A) Clinical image. (B) PET-SORTEO simulated image of a healthy patient. (C) PET-SORTEO simulated pathologic image containing three lesions (black arrows). (From Tomei S, Reilhac A, Visvikis D, et al. OncoPET_DB: a freely distributed database of realistic simulated whole body 18F-FDG PET images for oncology. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 2010;57(1):250, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2009.2034375; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 12 (A–C) Several simulated scans using ASIM software corresponding to three different acquisition protocols. The arrows show simulated targets. (From Lartizien C, Kinahan PE, Comtat C. A lesion detection observer study comparing 2-dimensional versus fully 3-dimensional whole-body PET imaging protocols. J Nucl Med 2004;45(4):714–23, Fig. 3; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions

Fig. 13 One plane from expiration (top row) and one from inspiration (bottom row) positions of the dynamic MR images, and the corresponding derived segmented image; FDG PET distribution; and attenuation image (see also animations). (From Buerger C, Tsoumpas C, Aitken A, et al. Investigation of MR-based attenuation correction and motion compensation for hybrid PET/MR. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2012.2209127; with permission.) PET Clinics 2013 8, 95-110DOI: (10.1016/j.cpet.2012.10.003) Copyright © 2013 Terms and Conditions