Welcome

Tutorials PLEASE: Turn off your cell phone Be on time for the class Attend regularly Come prepared

Dates of tutorials

The research process Stage 1: Definition of the problem Stage 2: Obtaining the information Stage 3: Analysing and interpreting the data Stage 4: Communicating the results

The research process STAGE 1: DEFINING THE PROBLEM Deciding on the research topic Conducting a literature review Specify a research question Formulating a hypothesis Operationalizing concepts

The research process STAGE 2: Obtaining the information Ethics Research design Sampling Data collection STAGE 3: Analysing and interpreting the information Describing and interpreting quantitative data Analyses and interpretation of qualitative data

The research process STAGE 4: Communicating the results Report

Data collection

Outcomes Levels of measurement Examples of levels of measurement Existing sources of data Likert scale Interviews Self-administered questionnaire Selection of a observational technique

Levels of measurement The level of measurement determines what statistical procedures can be applied Nominal level The categories used in nominal levels of measurement have the following characteristics: Discrete (separate) Mutually exclusive – choosing one category automatically excludes other categories Exhaustive – includes all possible responses

Levels of measurement 2. Ordinal level Data is ranked according to order of importance Ordinal scales Likert scales - Semantic scales Used to measure behaviour, attitudes, opinions and preferences

Levels of measurement 3. Interval level Interval tscale Can measure the interval or distance between two points on a quantitative instrument (eg thermometer) Does not have an absolute zero point

Levels of measurement 4. Ratio level Highest level of measurement Has an absolute zero Is used when using weight, length and time Not used to measure people’s attitudes (there can not be an total absence of the quality)

Measurement errors The measuring instrument we use could bias the actual data collected and interpretation of findings Measurement error An inaccuracy that influences the measurement of an attribute Two sources of measurement error Systematic error People tend to give a favorable impression This can bias their responses systematically Random error - When measurements vary due to some factors eg p175

Using existing data Do a literature survey (using sources of existing data) Research which is fully based on analysing existing data Advantages of using existing data Unobtrusive Practical – takes less time and costs less Reliability and validity can be confirmed

Using existing data Sources of existing data Primary data – info collected at the original source Secondary data – info taken someone other than the original source eg another researcher’s report Tertiary data – interpretations based on comments on secondary sources Check and verify the authenticity and credibility of sources and data p 177 Genuineness and credibility

Survey vs field research Survey research is systematic collection of specific information, obtained through asking a sample or respondents the same questions at a particular point in time Field research involves observing events and people in their natural settings

Interviews Structured - specific lists of questions are asked Unstructured interviews – there are no specific questions, respondents give their reactions to general issues Two types of face to face interviews In-depth interviews – to obtain detailed information Focus group interviews (group interviews) – consist of 6 to 12 people who are interviewed together at the same time.

Interviews 4. Types of questions asked in interviews p181 Closed-ended questions – fixed number of answers (yes/no) Open questions – encourage respondents to express their attitudes Free-narration questions – tell his/her own story Role-playing questions – respondent is invited to play a certain role Follow-up questions – follow on from the respondents answers to a closed ended question

Interviews Filter question: identify a subgroup Contingency question: only apply to some respondents eg how often do you smoke dagga?

Interviews Conducting an interview Decide who is going to be interviewed Individuals or groups, social setting, time chosen Advanced planning Purpose of the interview must be made clear at beginning of interview Begin with general questions, later sensitive ones Do a pre-test or pilot test before the actual research

Advantages Advantages: interviews Because interviews are flexible, it can provide researcher with detailed information Respondents do not have to be literate Non verbal communication can be observed Advantages telephone interview Data can be collected quickly Not expensive

Limitations Limitations: interviews Bias is problem. Interviewer may be biased towards interviewee because of eg race Face to face interviews are costly Training in skills is necessary Cannot interview a large sample limitations: telephonic interview Sampling bias – obtaining a sample that is not representative of the population People tend to be suspicious

Questionnaires (in survey & field research) Questions which should be avoided: Double-barreled –two questions are joined in one question – either / both, or/therefore/and Loaded language / leading questions – conveys a position for or against a topic being investigated “also” “Can” or “might” should be avoided – only one logical answer Negative items – could be misinterpreted Incomplete question – inadequately defined Vague agents of action – ambiguous Lengthy questions – complex Unwarranted assumptions – use filter and contingency questions Acronym or abbreviations

Questionnaires Types of items included in questionnaires ex on p 189 Closed ended questions consist of two or more responses – Yes / No Paired-comparison questions – person has to think about the options and compare their meanings Contingency questions – apply to only some of the respondents (nursed a cancer patient) Filter questions – used to identify a subgroup in the sample Ranking questions – Options must be ranked or ordered from the most to the least, according to the respondent’s preference Inventory questions – to obtain a comprehensive overview of all possible options that could apply to each respondent Multiple-choice questions – the respondent must select one option from those given

Scales as self-report measures Likert scales p192 Categories - strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree Summative scaling procedure – nrs for different items are added together Guttman and Thurstone – to measure people’s attitudes Semantic differential scales Consists of a series of seven-point spaces which have bipolar ratings (two poles or extremes) on either end of each scale Response bias / response set – respondents fall into a pattern of answering questions in a certain way

Ordering of questionnaire items Begin with general or broader questions Items should follow a logical pattern Begin with neutral questions, put sensitive questions more towards the middle

Properties of scales Reliability - the degree to which a scale yields consistent results or scores Three empirical methods are used to estimate a scales' reliability Test-retest method Split-half method Equivalent forms method

Reliability Test-retest method correlating one scale to the same group of respondents at different times, with intervals (one week to a yr) Reliability is estimated by correlating the two sets of scores Suitable for determining the stability component of reliability.

Reliability 2. Split-half method The scale is split into two halves, with each half scored separately. Reliability is estimated by the correlation between the scores of the two halves Estimate the internal consistency among the items

Reliability 3. Equivalent-forms (alternate form) method Compiling two forms that contain items which measure the same phenomenon. Two sets of scores are correlated Equivalency component of the instrument’s reliability 4. Intercoder reliability: the extent to which the ratings of two or more coders are the same

Validity The degree to which a scale measures what it is supposed to measure Predictive validity Concurrent validity Content validity Construct validity

Validity Four ways of estimating an instrument’s validity Criterion validity 1. Predictive validity - an instrument’s ability to measure and predict the criterion measure 2. Concurrent validity – validity is estimated by administering the attitude scale and criterion measure at approx the same time

Validity Four ways of estimating an instrument’s validity B. Content validity – to what degree do the items correspond with that being researched C. Construct validity – the extent to which it measures the construct that it is supposed to measure

Conducting a survey Broad guidelines Construct a measuring instrument Conduct a pilot test of the instrument Test the reliability and validity of the instrument Carefully consider the timing of the survey

Advantages and limitations of using questionnaires p199

Observational techniques (in field research) 5 conditions for observation to become a scientific method of collecting data p199 3 factors that influence researchers’ observation Selective attention, bias, the researcher’s intentions. Field observation: people are observed in their natural environment Participant observation: researcher joins and becomes involved with the observed group nonparticipant observation: the researcher is entirely removed Ethnographic research: to describe a particular group’s way of life Reactive observations vs nonreactive observations

Observational techniques (in field research) Roles of observer in field research Participant observation – the researcher (as the observer) joins and becomes involved with the group being observed Ethnographic research: to describe a particular group’s way of life, from its cultural setting Audience ethnography - audiences Street ethnography – certain settings for ex shelter

Observational techniques (in field research) Roles of observer in field research Reactive observations vs nonreactive observations (non participant observation) Reactive observations – observations that influence the behaviour being observed Non reactive observations – observations that do not influence the behaviour being observed Non participant observations – researcher is entirely removed from the social interaction Overtly vs unobtrusive Concealed (hidden recording devices) vs partial observation (concealment)

Conducting field observations What is observed depends on the research design and theoretical assumptions 4 categories of observation in field research where researcher exerts no control over behaviours: Observing external or physical signs e.g. clothing Observing kinesics – e.g. Nonverbal communication Observing proxemics - status and control, distance between people Linguistic insulation – separating oneself from others by means of language Depersonalisation – losing one’s sense of identity Language behaviour – stuttering, slips of the tongue, silences

Conducting field observations How are the observations recorded? a. Classification – persons and behaviours are arranged in groups Operational definition of categories used in classifications must be discrete, mutually exclusive and exhaustive Replication b. Select or devise instruments to observe and measure and analyse the data

Advantages and limitations of observational techniques Advantage – enables researchers to study social interactions Limits – has low external validity