Introduction to research methodology By Etienne Nsereko Septemebre,2008

Unit one: some definitions of research There is no one totally accurate definition of research It may sometimes be defined as a process, a means, or an end to a means itself. There is however some agreement that research uses systematic data collection and interpretation of such data to solve problems, answer questions , develop products or improve existing products:

Unit one: some definitions of research Considering the following definitions of research : The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. An endeavor to discover new or to collate old facts by the study of a subject or by course of critical investigation (Readers Digest oxford complete Worrdfinder 1993:1306)

Unit one: some definitions of research An attempt to increase the sum of what is known , usually referred to as a body of knowledge, by the discovery of new facts or relationship through a process of systematic scientific inquiry, the research process (Macleod-clark& Clark &Hockey 1989:4) Diligent systematic inquiry to validate and refine old knowledge and generate new knowledge (Burns&Grove 1993:16

Note the following in the definition Research increases knowledge There is a method of research Research is systematic Research is a process Research is a scientific process

Why nursing research and what is nursing research ? Research conducted by nurses, and or studies that have relevance to clients and patients care will qualify to be nursing research.

True nursing research researches are those that are conducted for the following reasons As clinicians: to ensure that our patients and clients are receiving the best possible care As managers: to demonstrate that our services are cost effective and efficient , or to find ways of making such services to be cost effective and efficient As educators: to ensure that we are educating the next generation of health professionals properly

Phases and steps of research process Conceptualization Implementation dissemination

Conceptualization Identify the problem Determine the purpose of your study Search and review the literature relating to your question Develop a framework Define and refine the research question Formulate a research hypothesis (es) Select a research methods and determine the design of your study Consider possible ways to analyze the data

implementation Conduct a pilot study Collect data Analyze the data Interpret the results

dissemination Communicate the research findings (research report, publishing research findings

Unit 2:Research problem A research problem is a problem of some sort that will like to research . It can be stated as a question or questions A research problem can also be defined as a question that need an ensure through a rigorous process of inquiry and observation; Or a situation in a need of a solution , improvement , or an alteration requiring a process of systematic observation and judgment

Examples of started research problems Does variation in the angle of holding the syringe during the administration of IM injection result in different amount of injection site bleeding? What factors are associated with non-adherence to treatment among diabetic patients?

Appropriateness of research problem Significance of the study Researchability of the problem Feasibility of the study

Unit 3: research purpose If you are going to conduct a study , it might be pertinent to ask yourself about the purpose Are you conducting this study : To identify………? To describe……..? To explain………? To predict…........? To evaluate…….? To develop……..? To compare…….? To investigate….? To demonstrate..?

Evaluation of research question Feasibility: (Possible to collect data to be able to answer the question. This includes consideration of time, money , space , resources ) Clarity: (Most people will agree as to what the key terms sin the question mean) Significance : Why is it important to answer this question? Will the answer contribute important knowledge about human condition , improve practice , or of any help to human beings? Can be used in decision making or programme planning ? Ethicality : Will not involve physical or psycological harm or damage to human beings or to the natural or social environment which they are part

Unit 4: Relationship , variables & hypotheses Independent variable: Variables that the investigator chooses to study in order to assess their possible effect on one more other variables. A variable that influences other variable Dependant variable: Variable that the independent variable affects Students in the nursing department more stressed than the students in social work department

hypotheses This is a statement of prediction regarding the possible outcome of a study . (or an anticipated response to a research question) Example: student in the nursing department are more stressed than the students in the social work department independent and dependant variable have to be clearly stated .

Unit 5: Literature review Familiar terms : Concept Construct Proposition Theory Model Framework Paradigm metaparadigm

theory The word theory derives from the Greek “theoria”, which means vision . Theories are conceptual inventions of reality that are used to describe , explain , predict, or understand phenomenon of concern. A “good” theory then , provides a useful vision or perspective of reality .

theory A good theory expand our vision and guide our thinking, our practice, and our research. (Virginia' nursing theory)

How is theory related to the research process A theory , conceptual model (paradigm), theoretical framework, or model serves to provide parameters for the study , guides data collection, and provides a perspective for interpreting the data, enabling the scientist to structure the facts into an orderly system.

The language of a theory Concept Concepts are linguistic labels that we assign to objects or events. Concepts are the building blocks of theories and vary in the level of abstraction. Example of highly abstract concept: stress, pain, wellness) Less abstract or more concrete concepts are like, blood loss, temperature elevation , weight and height

concepts Concepts may have a theoretical or operational definition In a theoretical definition , the concept is defined in relation to other concepts the operational definition links the concepts to the real world and identifies empirical referents indicators) of the concept that permit observation and measurement .

concepts Regardless of the level of abstraction , the researcher needs to provide both theoretical and operational definitions of the concepts to link the theoretical perspective with the research aims

Construct& proposition Constructs are group of concepts that are directly or indirectly observable Propositions describe the relationship of two or more concepts As you can see from the definitions, theory development begins with the identification and description of concepts and constructs and proceeds to formulate propositions that describe the nature of the relationships between these concepts

Conceptual model and paradigm A conceptual model refers to concepts that provide a structure or pattern for organizing phenomena of interest in practice or research. kuhn(1970), a philosopher of science , popularized the term paradigm and used it to mean a model or world view about the major phenomenon of a concern to a discipline. Conceptual models or paradigms serve as heuristic devices or springboards for developing theories

theory What is a theory? It is a viewpoints or ways of perceiving reality. Kerlinger(1973) provides a formal definition of theory:" it is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena” .

The Holarchy of Contemporary Nursing Knowledge: Metaparadigm of Nursing Human beings Environment Health Nursing

Purpose of literature search To determine what is already known about the topic to be studied To obtain clues to the methodology and instruments to be used To refine certain parts of the study to identify information that may compare with new findings to inform or support the study

What to look for when searching Facts, statistics and research findings Theory or interpretations Methods and procedures Opinions, believes or point of view

Research steps and literature search Problem identification Is it a problem? Is it already researched? What were the methods used? What were the findings? Plan the research What pitfall? How do I go about doing this study? Design, Data collection and analysis Support for using a type of design Correct data analysis method Conclusions and recommendations Compare with previous findings Identify audience for dissemination Where to publish

Unit 6: locating a conceptual/theoretical framework A theory or a theoretical framework could be described as a well developed coherent explanation for an event or a phenomenon (ex: Orem self care theory, Kolb's learning cycle, health belief model) Reasons for specifying a conceptual or theoretical framework: To locate their research , ei., to signal where the research is coming from To test a theory , ie.,to assess the validity

Example of the use of a conceptual framework Research purpose: To investigate the learning experience of nursing students in the new curriculum at the KHI nursing school Theory (Kolb's theory)

Unit 7: methodology The methods used by the researcher to obtain subjects, collects the data , analyze the data and interpret the results. These include: The research design Sampling strategy Instrumentation Procedure for data collection Data analysis techniques Interpretation of the results

2 broad approaches to conducting researches. Quantitative Qualitative research

Quantitative /qualitative research Reality is objective and singular Researcher is independent from that being researched Deductive process Reality is subjective and multiple Researcher interacts with that being researched Inductive process

Research design This can be defined as overall plan for gathering data in a research study . It allows for logical steps to be taken in order to enable the researcher answer the research question .

Research design Before choosing a research design , it may be helpful to ask yourself the following questions: What is the purpose of this study? What data do I want? Qualitative or quantitative ? What instrument will I use to collect this data? Who will supply this data , or where can I get this data from? How will this data (be used to ) answer the research question ? Are you comparing , or just making a simple description?

Quantitative research

Experiments and quasi-experiments and non-experiments research Other types of research

Experiments and quasi-experiments Characteristics of true experiments research: Manipulation Control Randomization

Characteristics of quasi-experiment research Look very much with experiment research design however the missing ingredient is always either the randomization or control group component (or both)

Non experimental research Descriptive To obtain complete and accurate information about a phenomenon through observation, description and classification Type of the question: How prevalent is the phenomenon? What are the characteristics? What is the process by which the phenomenon is experienced?

Non experimental research Exploratory Purpose: to explore the dimensions of a phenomenon, the manner in which it is manifested and the other factors with which it is related( it provides more insight about the nature of a phenomenon) Type of the question: What is the nature of the phenomenon? What factors are related to the phenomenon?

Non experimental research Explanatory Purpose: to explain a phenomenon and to answer the question ‘why’ it occurs. Question: what is the underlying cause? What does the occurrence of the phenomenon mean?

Unit 8:population and sample Is the entire aggregation of cases that meets a designated set of criteria. Target population: Is the entire specified aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to make generalizations

Samples and sampling Sampling refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. In sampling terminology , the units that make up the samples and population are usually referred to as elements. the element is the most basic unit about which information is collected.

Samples and sampling The overriding consideration in assessing a sample is its representativeness. A representative sample is one whose key characteristics closely approximate those of the population.

Sampling plan