Chapter 5 Motivation at Work Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work. Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications. Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace. Describe the two-factor theory of motivation. Explain two new ideas in human motivation. Describe the role of inequity in motivation. Describe the expectancy theory of motivation. Describe the cultural differences in motivation. Learning Outcomes © 2013 Cengage Learning

1 Learning Outcome Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Motivation the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior © 2013 Cengage Learning 6 6 6 2 2 6

THREE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Internal Focus on variables within individual that lead to motivation and behavior. Process Emphasize nature of interaction between individual and environment. External Focus on elements in the environment to explain motivation and behavior. © 2013 Cengage Learning 3

Early Motivational Theorists Sigmund Freud person’s organizational life founded on compulsion to work and power of love Max Weber Protestant work ethic © 2013 Cengage Learning 7 7 7 5 3 7

Early Motivational Theorists Adam Smith people motivated by self-interest for economic gain to provide necessities of life. Frederick Taylor scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to increase profit. © 2013 Cengage Learning 7 7 7 5 3 7

2 Learning Outcome Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Lowest to highest order © 2013 Cengage Learning 2 5 2 4 6 2

Needs and Theories X and Y SOURCE: D. M. McGregor, “The Human Side of Enterprise,” Management Review (November 1957), http://www.amanet.org. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. © 2013 Cengage Learning 2 5 2 5 7 2

Theory X and Theory Y A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs © 2013 Cengage Learning

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X Naturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs Naturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupes Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org. © 2013 Cengage Learning 7 8

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience People possess Motivation Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org. © 2013 Cengage Learning 8 9

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Growth Relatedness Existence © 2013 Cengage Learning 10

3 Learning Outcome Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace. © 2013 Cengage Learning

3categories of needs McClelland’s Theory Achievement Power Affiliation © 2013 Cengage Learning

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties © 2013 Cengage Learning 6 6 6 2 15 6

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life © 2013 Cengage Learning 6 6 6 2 16 6

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people © 2013 Cengage Learning 6 6 6 2 17 6

Need Theories of Motivation © 2013 Cengage Learning 10 13

4 Learning Outcome Describe the two-factor theory of motivation. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factor Motivation factor Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience © 2013 Cengage Learning

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation Achievement Achievement recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Salary? Motivation factors increase job satisfaction Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction Company policy and administration Supervision Interpersonal relations Working conditions Salary Status Security SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission. © 2013 Cengage Learning 10 13

Critique of Herzberg A factor may not be exclusively motivation or hygiene (e.g., salary). Does not account for individual differences (age, sex, social status, education). Does not account for intrinsic job factors. Supporting data comes from peculiar critical-incident technique. © 2013 Cengage Learning

5 Learning Outcome Explain two new ideas in human motivation. © 2013 Cengage Learning

New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope healthy, normal stress Encourages optimism, hope and health. While things happen that are out of our control, we can control our response to them. © 2013 Cengage Learning

New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full Engagement Individuals are activated by their own physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual energy, not by unmet needs. Stresses the role of energy recovery. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Beyond the Book: Does Motivation “Work”? A new study in England argues that motivational awards given to children, such as points, stickers, and treats, have little effect on performance. They may reduce “intrinsic motivation.” Rather than doing a task for its own sake, they do it just for the reward. According to Emma Dunmore, head of psychology at Harrogate Grammar School in North Yorkshire, England, children may actually be less motivated by rewards given for performance. In her study, she argues that incentives such as points, treats or stickers have little long-term results because it reduces intrinsic motivation, that is, the desire to perform a task because an individual wants to. Instead, she argues that rewards lead students to do things only for the sake of the reward, leading to feelings that they are being controlled by external factors. As she writes in her study, “Rewards may strengthen behaviour in the short term but... they can undermine motivation in the long run because they reduce the individual's perception that they are doing that task of their own free will.” SOURCE: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/6563040/Classroom-rewards-do-not-work-work.html © 2013 Cengage Learning

6 Learning Outcome Describe the role of inequity in motivation. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Social Exchange & Equity Theory Equity theory – concerned with social processes that influence motivation and behavior. © 2013 Cengage Learning © 2013 Cengage Learning

Individual–Organizational Exchange © 2013 Cengage Learning

Adam’s Theory of Inequity People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity or unfairness. To look for inequity, people consider their inputs and their outcomes. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Equity and Inequity at Work © 2013 Cengage Learning 19

Strategies for Resolution of Inequity Alter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situation © 2013 Cengage Learning 7 7 7 3 20 7

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Equity Sensitive I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other. © 2013 Cengage Learning 21

New Perspectives in Equity Theory Benevolent I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other. © 2013 Cengage Learning 22

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Entitled I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other. © 2013 Cengage Learning 23

7 Learning Outcome Describe the expectancy theory of motivation. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Expectancy Theory explains motivation in terms of an individual’s perception of the performance process. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Two Basic Notions of Expectancy Theory People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance. People believe that the effort they put forth is related to the performance they achieve and the outcomes they receive. © 2013 Cengage Learning 24

Key Constructs of Expectancy Theory Valence – value or importance one places on a particular reward Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards © 2013 Cengage Learning 24

Expectancy Model of Motivation © 2013 Cengage Learning 25

3 Causes of Motivational Problems Belief that effort will not result in performance Belief that performance will not result in rewards The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards © 2013 Cengage Learning

Moral Maturity the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development © 2013 Cengage Learning

Moral Maturity and Motivation Morally mature people behave and act based on universal ethical principles. Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric motivations. © 2013 Cengage Learning

8 Learning Outcome Describe the cultural differences in motivation. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Cultural Differences Most motivation theories in use today have been developed by and about Americans. These theories may not deal adequately with cultural differences. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Beyond the Book: Motivation in Beijing Participants in the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing faced harsh conditions – 16 hour sessions, heatstroke, exposure to rain, and one session that lasted 51 hours. During the ceremony, some performers wore adult diapers so that they could perform for six hours. There were, however, almost no complaints from the performers, most of whom agreed that such sacrifices were worth it for the good of the nation. This case illustrates well not only the power of motivation, but the cross-cultural differences in motivating individuals. Performers and artists in China were asked to rehearse and perform under difficult circumstances, leading to at least one catastrophic injury to renowned dancer Liu Yang, to present the glories of Chinese culture to the rest of the world. With that collective goal in mind, the thousands of individuals endured what many in the West would consider torturous and inhumane conditions. SOURCE: http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/summer08/news/story?id=3543618 © 2013 Cengage Learning

1. Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of this chapter’s definition of motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team? 2. Which needs discussed in this chapter does Mike appear to focus on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus later in the scene? 3. Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples. Friday Night Lights The Odessa, Texas passion for Friday night high school football (Permian High Panthers) comes through clearly in this cinematic treatment of H. G. (Buzz) Bissinger’s well-regarded book of the same title. Coach Gary Gaines (Billy Bob Thornton) leads the Panthers to the 1988 semifinals where they must compete against a team of much larger players. A fast-moving pace in the football sequences and a slower pace in the serious, introspective sequences give this film many fine moments. Ask your students: 1. Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of the definition of motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team? 2. Which needs discussed earlier in this chapter does Mike appear to be focused on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus later in the scene? 3. Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples. © 2013 Cengage Learning

Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce? According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated? What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes? Urban Escapes Founded in 2008 by Maia Josebachvili and Bram Levy, Urban Escapes has earned high praise for its vast array of exciting outdoor adventures. For the Urban Escapes employees working behind the scenes to deliver “Zen Escape Yoga Hikes” and “Boulder and Brew Tours,” motivation comes naturally. The company’s managers and guides are driven by the freedom and opportunity that only a start-up company can offer. “We gave everyone a lot of ownership in their cities,” Josebachvili says of her guides. “Initially, we said every time you want to run a trip, you run it by us. Within a few months, I was like, ‘Okay, if you know it’s going to work, don’t come to us—you got this’. After a year, I felt really good about what they were doing.” Ask your students: Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce? According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated? What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes? © 2013 Cengage Learning 49