3 Research

A Scientific Approach Requires that a claim be based on theories backed up by empirical evidence from well-designed studies before conclusions are drawn Is especially important in abnormal child psychology A simple connection between cause and effect may be obscured by complex interactions and a combination of variables

A Scientific Approach (cont’d.) Reasons for skepticism about research in abnormal child psychology Experts frequently disagree Studies appearing in mainstream media are oversimplified Findings often conflict with one another Research has led to different treatments— some have been helpful; some have had no effect; and some have been harmful

When Science is Ignored Ineffective practices not based on scientific evidence may be used with potentially damaging effects Pseudoscience demonstrates benefits through anecdotes or testimonials The difference between science and pseudoscience is: The quality of the evidence, how it was obtained, and how it is presented

The Research Process Research in abnormal child psychology is a multistage process: Developing a hypothesis on the basis of observation, theory, and previous findings Identifying the sample to be studied, selecting measurement methods, and developing research design and procedures Gathering and analyzing the data and interpreting the results

The Research Process (cont’d.) Figure 3.1 The research process in abnormal child psychology Source: Cengage Learning 2014

Nature and Distribution of Childhood Disorders Epidemiological research is the study of incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of disorders Incidence rates: the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period Prevalence rates: all cases (new and existing) observed during a specified time period

Correlates, Risks, and Causes Correlates: variables associated at a particular point in time No clear proof that one precedes the other Risk factors: variables that precede an outcome of interest Increase the chance of a negative outcome Protective factors: variables that precede an outcome of interest Decrease the chance of a negative outcome

Moderating and Mediating Variables Moderating variables influence the direction or strength of the relationship of variables of interest Have an independent effect on the existing relationship between two variables Mediating variables impact the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome Account for some or all of the apparent relationship between two variables

Example of a Moderator Variable Figure 3.2 Example of a moderator variable: Sex of the child moderates the relationship between abuse and internalizing problems. Source: Cengage Learning 2014

Mediating Variables Figure 3.3 Mediating variables: The type of discipline used by mothers on days they are feeling distressed mediates the relationship between maternal distress and child behavior problems Source: Cengage Learning 2016

Interventions Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) Treatment efficacy Children are randomly assigned to different treatment and control conditions Treatment efficacy Whether a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled (research) conditions Treatment effectiveness Whether the treatment can be shown to work in clinical practice

Methods of Studying Behavior Standardization A process that specifies a set of standards or norms for a method of measurement Reliability: the consistency or repeatability of results Internal consistency: measurement method remains the same Interrater reliability: agreement of observers Test-retest reliability: results between tests are stable over time

Methods of Studying Behavior (cont’d.) Validity Face validity: the extent to which a measure appears to assess the construct of interest Construct validity: whether scores on a measure behave as predicted Convergent validity: reflects the correlation between related measures Discriminant validity: the degree of correlation between unrelated measures

Validity (cont’d.) Criterion-related validity: how well a measure predicts behavior in specific settings At the same time (concurrent validity) In the future (predictive validity)

Value of Methods and Measurement Figure 3.4 Concepts that determine the value of our methods of measurement and assessment Source: Cengage Learning 2016

Measurement Methods Interviews Questionnaires Checklists and rating scales Psychophysiological recordings Brain imaging Performance measures

Measurement Methods (cont’d.) Direct observations of behavior Intellectual, academic, and neuropsychological tests

Interview, Questionnaire, and Observation Table 3.1 Interview, Questionnaire, and Observation Source: Cengage Learning 2013

Reporting Methods Assess perceptions, thoughts, behaviors, feelings, and past experiences of the child, parents, and teachers Includes unstructured clinical interviews, highly structured diagnostic interviews, and questionnaires A self-report measure provides information about one’s own behavior, feelings, and thoughts

Reporting Methods (cont’d.) Informant-report measure - someone who knows the child well provides information based on observation Inaccuracies may occur - failure to recall events, selective recall or bias, etc. Requires verbal ability - not reliable with young children Must be sensitive to the language and cultural background of person being evaluated

Psychophysiological Methods Assess the relationship between physiological processes and behavior Autonomic nervous system activity Examples: heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, and electrical skin conductance Limitations Inconsistent findings; inference often involved; and susceptibility to extraneous influences Electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the brain’s electrical activity

Neuroimaging Methods Structural brain imaging procedures study brain anatomy Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - radio signals produce fine-grained analyses of brain structures Coaxial tomography (CT) scan reveals various brain structures

Neuroimaging Methods (cont’d.) Functional brain imaging procedures study brain functioning Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) registers neural activity in functioning areas of the brain Positron emission tomography (PET) scans assess cerebral glucose metabolism Diffusion MRI produces images showing connections between brain regions

Observational Methods Benefits of structured observations Are cost-effective Allow for focused attention Are useful for studying infrequent behavior Allow for greater control over the situation Limitation of structured observations Uncertainty of whether the observations are a representative sample of behavior

Research Strategies Internal validity External validity The extent to which a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the findings External validity The degree to which findings can be generalized to other people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics

Research Strategies (cont’d.) Identifying the sample A careful definition of the sample is critical Comorbidity: the simultaneous occurrence of two or more disorders Random selection is rare in child psychopathology studies Child studies often use samples of convenience

General Research Strategies Nonexperimental and experimental research One goal is to simplify and isolate variables to study them more closely Characteristics of true experiments Researchers have maximum control over the independent variable Subjects are randomly assigned Needed control conditions are applied Possible bias sources are controlled

Nonexperimental and Experimental Research (cont’d.) Correlational studies examine relationships among variables Causality cannot be determined Random assignment of participants to treatment conditions: Helps control for participant characteristics Natural experiments involve comparisons between conditions that already exist

Prospective and Retrospective Research Retrospective designs Sample is identified at the current time and asked for information relating to an earlier time Data are highly susceptible to bias and distortion in recall

Prospective and Retrospective Research (cont’d.) Real-time prospective designs Sample is identified and followed over time Data is collected at specified time intervals Problems related to bias and distortion in recall are minimized These designs are time consuming and susceptible to sample attrition

Analogue Research Evaluates a specific variable under conditions that approximate the situation for which one wishes to generalize Focus is on a circumscribed research question under well-controlled conditions It is difficult to know if similar effects would occur in real-life circumstances

Research Designs Case Study Involves an intensive, anecdotal, observation and analysis of an individual child Rich source of descriptive information Viewed as unscientific and flawed Characterized by uncontrolled methods and selective biases; by inherent difficulties integrating observations and drawing valid inferences; and by generalizations from one child to other children

Research Designs (cont’d.) Single-Case Experimental Designs Applicable in evaluating the impact of a clinical treatment Involves systematic repeated assessment of behavior over time The subject serves as own control Limitations Possible interactions between treatment and subject characteristics; limited generalization of findings; and subjectivity in evaluating the data

A-B-A-B (reversal) design Figure 3.5 A-B-A-B (reversal) design: treatment of Ann’s self-injurious behavior. Source: Adapted from Use of Negative Reinforcement in the Treatment of Self-Injurious Behavior by M.W. Steege, D.P. Wacker, K.C. Cigrand, W.K. Berg, G.C. Novak, T.M. Reimers, G.M. Sasso & A. DeRaad, 1990, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 459-467. Copyright © 1990 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.

Multiple-Baseline Design Across Situations Figure 3.6 Multiple-baseline design across situations: treatment of Dennis’s self-injurious behavior. Source: Adapted from Use of Negative Reinforcement in the Treatment of Self-Injurious Behavior by M.W. Steege, D.P. Wacker, K.C. Cigrand, W.K. Berg, G.C. Novak, T.M. Reimers, G.M. Sasso & A. DeRaad, 1990, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 459-467. Copyright © 1990 by the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, Inc.

Research Designs (cont’d.) Between-group comparison designs compare experimental and control groups Cross-sectional/longitudinal studies look at change over time Cross-sectional: individuals at different ages or periods of development are studied at the same point in time Longitudinal: individuals are studied over time at different ages or periods of development

Research Designs (cont’d.) Qualitative Research Focuses on narrative accounts, description, interpretation, context, and meaning Purpose is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest In the context in which it is experienced May be biased by researcher’s values and preferences Findings cannot be generalized to other individuals

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues Informed consent Before agreeing to participate, all participants must be fully informed of the nature of the research, including: Risks, benefits, expected outcomes, alternatives, and option to withdraw from the study at any time Minor’s consent must be obtained from parents or legal guardian

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.) Assent The child agrees to participate Must be obtained if a child is around age 7 or older

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.) Voluntary Participation Participation in research must be voluntary Researcher must balance successful recruiting with not placing pressure on potential participants

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.) Confidentiality and anonymity Disclosed information must be kept confidential Individuals must be advised about any exceptions Disclosures of abuse are a common problem in child research Nonharmful procedures Should not cause physical or psychological harm

Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont’d.) Other ethical and pragmatic concerns Ethical concerns Longitudinal research - may involve unexpected crises, unforeseen consequences of research, and issues about continuing the research that affect a child’s well-being