Theories of learning, Guidance and Feedback

Contents Practice methods Whole Part Progressive Part Whole- Part- Whole Mental Practice Phases of Learning Cognitive Phase Associative Phase Autonomous Phase Theories of Learning Conditioning Reinforcement Thorndike’s Laws Guidance Visual Verbal Manual/Mechanical Feedback Positive & Negative Intrinsic & Extrinsic KP & KR Concurrent & Terminal

Phases of Learning Cognitive Associative Autonomous Fitts and Posner suggested that learners pass through three distinct stages as their skills develop…. Why do we need to Understand this? Cognitive Associative Autonomous

Cognitive Phase Characteristics Attempting to understand the skill- Specifically what it looks like Trial and error Movement will look un-coordinated Coaching Needs… Reliant on Visual guidance Manual/Mechanical likely to also be used Reliant upon Coach for feedback Feedback focused on reinforcement of success- Build confidence

Associative Phase Characteristics Learner understands the skill- Developed a mental picture Movement will be more fluent Skill will be repeatable Coaching Needs… Guidance more likely to be Visual Manual/Mechanical may still be used Feedback can involve the learner developing a feel for the skill - Kinaesthetic Sense Feedback still needed from a coach to correct mistakes

Autonomous Phase Characteristics Movements are automatic- No conscious thought High levels of consistent success Skill is stable under pressure Coaching Needs… Guidance doesn’t need to be too extensive Guidance more likely to be Verbal- Saves time Feedback will be mostly intrinsic- Kinaesthetic sense

Theories of Learning Learning is a long term change of behaviour Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Laws Classical Conditioning Learning is a long term change of behaviour

Conditioning Operant Classical Conditioning- Classical V Operant Operant Classical Trained response to a given stimulus Response becomes a Habit and therefore an automatic response Learning happens when a connection is made between stimulus and response “Hand” command during a relay race Modifying behaviour (response)to a specific situation Use of Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement and Punishment To be effective, feedback needs to be closely follow the response

Stimulus Response Bond Big Bang Theory- Conditioning The relationship between Stimulus and Response… When a correct action is reinforced the link to the correct response becomes stronger When an incorrect action is not reinforced the link to the correct response becomes weaker Positive reinforcement- Use of rewards or praise Negative reinforcement- The withdrawal of rewards or praise Punishment- Inflicting retribution on incorrect action

Thorndike’s Laws Law of Exercise Law of Effect Law of Readiness Repetition strengthens the SR Bond The more you practice a skill the more likely it is that you will repeat the correct version in competition Reinforcement strengthens the SR Bond Satisfying reinforcers (ones that make you feel good) increase likelihood of it being repeated Can be Kinaesthetic Strengthening the SR Bond can only happen when the Nervous system and Muscular system are mature enough Mentally and Physically prepared to perform

Practice Methods Organisation of Practice Part Method Whole Method Whole-Part-Whole Progressive Part method Reflects the way in which a skill can be taught to maximise performance Factors affecting which type to use include… Complexity of skill Classification of skill Environment Ability of performer Motivation levels of performer

Whole Method The skills is practised in total (A + B + C + D) Preferred when the skill is…. Low complexity (Simple) High organisation Consists of interrelated sub- routines Discrete or short duration Unable to be broken down The performer would be …. Experienced Highly attentive Highly motivated In the later stages of learning Examples of skill/activities… Somersault Dart throw Penalty kick Snooker shot

Part Method The skill is broken down in to parts for practice (A, B, C, D) Preferred when the skill is…. High complexity Low organisation Independent sub-routines Serial or long duration Dangerous The performer would be …. A beginner Limited attention span Limited in motivation In the early stages of learning Struggling to improve the skill Examples of skill/activities… Triple Jump Trampoline routine

Progressive Part Method The parts are practiced separately then combined into bigger elements….. A A+B A+B+C A+B+C+D Most suitable for…. Complex tasks Chaining skills learnt independently Skills with limited attentional demands Skills which require co-ordination Skills which have positive transfer to the whole movement

Whole-Part-Whole Method Combination of the Whole and part methods…. A+B+C+D--------------------A or B or C or D--------------------A +B+C+D Has the advantage of a flexible approach which can adapt depending on the…. Situation (Environment) Performer’s stage of learning Task difficulty Useful to try whole skill then identify specific components to isolate and practice before putting the skill together again.

Uses of Mental practice Mental picture of skill Stimulate whole movement Imagine success Used during warm up Used during rest periods Prevents wear and tear Small muscle contractions stimulated Focus attention on important aspects Builds self confidence Controlling arousal levels

Guidance Verbal Visual Manual Mechanical

Mainly through demonstrations Visual Guidance Mainly through demonstrations - Live model Video Needs to… Be realistic, appropriate Reemphasise most important aspect Be repeated Useful when… - In Cognitive stage of learning (Develops mental image) - learner is attentive learner is capable of matching demonstration Demonstration is done by someone of high status Coach reinforces correct copying with feedback

Often used alongside Visual guidance Verbal Guidance Often used alongside Visual guidance Needs to… Be controlled to avoid information overload and learners losing concentration Useful when… Performers are more competent (Later stages of learning) Time pressures exist Coach needs to explain tactics Reinforcement is needed

Manual and Mechanical Guidance Using Physical support to help performers through a movement… Manual Physical support from Coach/teacher -Support during gymnastics vault Mechanical Mechanical support from an external source -Stabilisers on bike / Ropes for climbers / Armbands Gives confidence to performer by allowing success Allows the development of Kinaesthetic sense Controls a situation with an element of danger Must not overuse- Performer may become reliant upon it

Feedback The way in which information is received by a performer regarding their performance.

Positive & Negative Information aimed at constructive development Praise or encouragement A coach encouraging a player to repeat actions through praise during a game Information aimed to depress performance Criticism after poor performance A coach who gives faults but not how to correct them

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Feedback from within yourself Kinaesthetic awareness… Provided by proprioception through Muscle tension and angles at joints Feedback form an external source Can either motivate or demotivate depending upon the quality of the feedback Free Throw Alan Pardew Chewin' the Fat

Knowledge of performance & Knowledge of Results Information is gained in regards to the performance Quality of technique used Aesthetic quality of performance (Certain activities) Information is gained in regards to the outcome Success or failure Distance, height or time achieved

Concurrent & Terminal Happens during the performance Used regularly by Autonomous learners Not suitable for cognitive phase of learning as it can be Information overload Happens after the performance has finished Needs to be as soon as possible after the event to give more meaning Suitable for all phases of learning, especially Cognitive Phase