Continued on next slide. Daily Focus 1.1

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers. 1. No, images are mental representations, not exact copies.  2. In English, OAK TREE represents to all English speakers a tree similar to the one shown in the image picture.  3. Trees, autumn trees, woods, and forest are the classes of objects represented by the concept. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers. Daily Focus 1.2

Chapter Concepts 2

Reader’s Guide Main Idea Objectives Thinking involves changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformed information, such as creative problem-solving strategies.  Objectives Identify the units of thought and the kinds of thinking.  Explain strategies for and obstacles to problem solving. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 295 of your textbook. Section 1-1

Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. Reader’s Guide (cont.) Vocabulary thinking  functional fixedness  creativity  flexibility  recombination  insight image  symbol  concept  prototype  rule  metacognition  algorithm  heuristic  mental set  Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 295 of your textbook. Section 1-2

Introduction Going beyond memory, how do we think?  How do we solve problems? How do we create ideas?  If storage and retrieval were the only processes we used to handle information, human beings would be little more than glorified cameras and VCRs. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-3

Introduction (cont.) Yet we are capable of doing things with information that make the most complex computers seem simple by comparison.  These processes–thinking and problem solving–are most impressive when they show originality or creativity. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-4

Thinking You may view thinking as changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new or transformed information.  By thinking, humans are able to put together any combination of words from memory and create sentences never devised before. thinking changing and reorganizing the information stored in memory to create new information Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-5

Units of Thought The processes of thought depend on several devices or units of thought: images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules.  The most primitive unit of thought is an image, a mental representation of a specific event or object.  Imaging is an effective way to think about concepts. image a mental representation of an event or object Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-6

Using Imagery Rotate pairs of images of the patterns to the left in your mind to make them match. Do the drawings in each pair represent the same object, or are they different objects? Chart 1-1

Units of Thought (cont.) A more abstract unit of thought is a symbol, a sound or design that represents an object or quality.  The most common symbols in thinking are words: almost every word is a symbol that stands for something other than itself.  Symbols include numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and icons. symbol an abstract unit of thought that represents an object or quality Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-7

Units of Thought (cont.) When a symbol is used as a label for a class of objects or events with certain common attributes–or for the attributes themselves–it is called a concept.  Concepts enable us to chunk large amounts of information. concept a label for a class of objects or events that share common attributes Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-8

Units of Thought (cont.) When we think of a concept, we often think of a representative example of it.  When you think of a vehicle, for example, you might picture a car or a truck.  This representation is called a prototype. prototype a representative example of a concept Section 1-9

Units of Thought (cont.) A more complex unit of thought is a rule, a statement of a relation between concepts.  Images, symbols, concepts, prototypes, and rules are the building blocks of mental activity. rule a statement of relation between concepts Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-10

Kinds of Thinking People think in several ways:  Directed thinking is a systematic and logical attempt to reach a specific goal, such as the solution to a problem.  Nondirected thinking (or divergent thinking), consists of a free flow of thoughts with no particular plan and depends more on images.  A third type of thinking is metacognition, or thinking about thinking. metacognition the awareness of one’s own cognitive process Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-11

Problem Solving One of the main functions of directed thinking is to solve problems–to bridge the gap mentally between a present situation and a desired goal.  The gap may be between hunger and food, a column of figures and a total, a lack of money and bills to pay, or cancer and a cure.  In all these examples, getting from the problem to the solution requires some directed thinking. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-12

Strategies Problem solving depends on the use of strategies, or specific methods for approaching problems.  One strategy is to break down a complex problem into a number of smaller, more easily solved subgoals.  Subgoals are intermediate steps toward a solution.  To determine which strategy to use, most of us analyze the problem to see if it resembles a situation we have experienced in the past. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-13

Strategies (cont.) Algorithms An algorithm is a fixed set of procedures that, if followed correctly, will lead to a solution.  Mathematical and scientific formulas are algorithms. algorithm a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-14

Strategies (cont.) Heuristics While algorithms can be useful in finding solutions, they are time-consuming.  People often use shortcuts–or heuristics–to solve problems.  Heuristics are rules of thumb that simplify a problem, allowing one to solve problems quickly and easily. heuristic a rule-of-thumb problem-solving strategy Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-15

Obstacles to Problem Solving There are times when certain useful strategies become cemented into the problem-solving process.  When a particular strategy becomes a habit, it is called a mental set–you are “set” to treat problems in a certain way. mental set a habitual strategy or pattern of problem solving Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-16

Obstacles to Problem Solving (cont.) One form of set that can interfere with problem solving is functional fixedness–the inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects.  In experiments on functional fixedness, people are asked to solve a problem that requires them to use a familiar object in an unfamiliar way (Duncker, 1945). functional fixedness the inability to imagine new functions for familiar objects Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-17

Creativity The ability to use information in such a way that the result is somehow new, original, and meaningful is creativity.  All problem solving requires some creativity.  Certain ways of solving problems, however, are simply more brilliant or beautiful or efficient than others. creativity the capacity to use information and/or abilities in a new and original way Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-18

Flexibility The ability to overcome rigidity is flexibility.  Psychologists have devised a number of ingenious tests to measure flexibility.  Whether such tests actually measure creativity is debatable. flexibility the ability to overcome rigidity Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-19

Recombination When the elements of a problem are familiar but the required solution is not, it may be achieved by recombination, a new mental arrangement of the elements.  Many creative people say that no truly great poem, no original invention, has ever been produced by someone who has not spent years studying his or her subject. recombination mentally rearranging the elements of a problem to arrive at an original solution Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-20

Insight The sudden emergence of a solution by recombination of elements is called insight.  Insight usually occurs when problems have proved resistant to all problem-solving efforts and strategies. insight the sudden realization of the solution to a problem Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-21

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section Assessment Review the Vocabulary Describe two obstacles to problem solving. A mental set is a strategy that has been used repeatedly and has become a habit. Functional fixedness is the inability to imagine new functions for objects. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section 1-Assessment 1

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section Assessment (cont.) Visualize the Main Idea In a diagram similar to the one shown on page 302 of your textbook, describe the characteristics of creative thinking. Flexibility is the ability to overcome rigidity and functional fixedness. Recombination is the ability to group items in new and different ways. Insight is the sudden realization of the solution to a problem. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section 1-Assessment 2

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section Assessment (cont.) Recall Information What is the difference between convergent and nondirected thinking? Give specific examples. Convergent thinking is a systematic, logical approach to problem solving that relies on symbols, concepts, and rules. Most people use convergent thinking to balance their checkbooks. Nondirected thinking involves free association of ideas in random order with no particular goal or plan. A person may create a layout for a new flower bed using nondirectd thinking. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section 1-Assessment 3

Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section Assessment (cont.) Think Critically If you were a teacher, would you allow students to solve math problems using different approaches if they reached the same answer? Why? Teachers should allow different approaches as long as the approach does not lead to faulty thinking or incorrect solutions when applied to other types of problems. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. Section 1-Assessment 4

Section 1-Assessment Close Section Assessment (cont.) In groups, list common algorithms and heuristics that are used in different academic disciplines such as mathematics, geography, history, and chemistry. Section 1-Assessment Close

Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide. End of Section 1