Module 4: Organic Chemistry

All organic compounds are made with carbon Carbon has 4 electrons available for bonding in its outer energy level. In order to become stable, carbon atoms form 4 covalent bonds.

Living things are mostly made of carbon compounds. These compounds are called organic compounds and their study is called organic chemistry

Carbon can bond with other carbon atoms as well as with many other elements. When carbon atoms bond with each other, they can form chains or rings.

Molecular Chains Carbon compounds vary greatly in size. Some contain 1-2 carbon atoms, while others contain 100’s or even 1000’s of carbon atoms. These large chains of carbons are called macromolecules

Monomers and Polymers The cell builds macromolecules by bonding small molecules (monomers) together to form long chains (polymers).

Monomers and Polymers Macromolecules are large molecules, or chains of molecules, found in the cell AKA known as polymers Monomers bond together to make polymers

Molecules that contain carbon. Organic Molecules Molecules that contain carbon.

4 types 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids

1. Carbohydrates Most abundant carbon compound found in nature. Two types are monosaccarhides (sugar) and polysaccarides (starches)

Structure Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom for every one carbon atom. hydrogen carbon oxygen

Monosaccharides Simple sugars, monomers Monomer is glucose. (table sugar) Major source of quick energy Elements CHO

Monosaccharides Test = Benedicts Positive if color changes from blue to yellow, green, or red

Found in… fruit pasta honey

Hydrolysis breaking a disaccharide water molecule splits occurs during digestion

Polysaccharides Starches/Cellulose (makes plants sturdy and is the fiber you eat) A chain of monosaccharides makes a polysaccharide.

Condensation making a disaccharide chemical reaction linking 2 monosaccharides

Function Starch - Store energy for later use (last longer)

Test = Iodine Positive if color changes purple or black

Found in… fruit potatoes pasta corn honey

2. Lipids Fats Oils Waxes NOT Soluble IN WATER (They don’t mix)

Monomers Glycerol and fatty acids are the monomers of lipids.

Structure Composed of long chains of carbons and hydrogen (fatty acids) and glycerol. Fatty acids contain a carboxyl functional group.

2 classes of lipids Saturated Unsaturated

Saturated Have a carbon chain in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single. Hard to break down. Usually exist as solids. Found in animal fat.

Found in… Butter Animal fats Waxes Membranes Candle wax Lipid bilayer of cell membrane

Unsaturated Have a carbon chain in which 2 or more carbon-carbon double bonds are present. Easier to break down. Usually exist as liquids. Found in vegetable oils.

Found in… Vegetable oil Membranes Lipid bilayer of cell membrane

Function Insulation Protection Long term energy storage Help make up biological membranes (cell membranes)

3. Proteins Essential to all life. Composed of amino acids (monomer) There are 20 different amino acids found in living organisms.

Composed of… Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen Amino acids are held together by a peptide bond.

enzymes and antibodies Found in… muscle skin hair enzymes and antibodies

Functions Give structure (bone and muscle) Transport nutrients in and out of cell Allow muscles to contract (chemical messengers) Speed up chemical reactions

Test = Biurets Positive violet Pink means peptides present

Enzymes Speeds up reactions – biological catalyst Help organisms maintain an internal balance - homeostasis Are proteins Enzyme activity is affected by pH Temperature Concentration

Enzymes 40

What Are Enzymes? Most enzymes are Proteins Act as Catalyst to accelerate a reaction Not permanently changed in the process 41

Enzymes Are specific for the reaction they will catalyze Are Reusable End in –ase -Sucrase -Lactase -Maltase 42

How do enzymes Work? Enzymes work by weakening bonds which lowers activation energy 43

Enzymes Without Enzyme With Enzyme Free Energy Progress of the reaction Reactants Products Free energy of activation 44

45

Enzyme-Substrate Complex Enzyme-substrate complex = when the substrate joins the enzyme The substance (reactant) an enzyme acts on is the substrate Enzyme Joins Substrate 46

Active Site Enzyme Active Site Substrate A restricted region of an enzyme molecule which binds to the substrate. Active Site Enzyme Substrate 47

What Affects Enzyme Activity? 48

1. Environmental Conditions a. Extreme Temperature are the most dangerous - high temps may denature (unfold) the enzyme. b. pH (most like 6 - 8 pH near neutral) c. Ionic concentration (salt ions) 49

2. Cofactors and Coenzymes Inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins (respectively) are sometimes need for proper enzymatic activity. Example: Iron must be present in the quaternary structure - hemoglobin in order for it to pick up oxygen. 50

3. Two examples of Enzyme Inhibitors a. Competitive inhibitors: are chemicals that resemble an enzyme’s normal substrate and compete with it for the active site. Enzyme Substrate Competitive inhibitor 51

Inhibitors Substrate active site altered b. Noncompetitive inhibitors: Inhibitors that do not enter the active site, but bind to another part of the enzyme causing the enzyme to change its shape, which in turn alters the active site. Enzyme Noncompetitive Inhibitor Substrate active site altered 52

4. Nucleic Acids Made of nucleotides (monomers). Sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base. Nitrogen

Composed of… Long strings of nucleotides held together that make up DNA and RNA. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous

Found in… All living things! Even found in viruses, which are classified as “nonliving,” but that is controversial.

Functions Store, transmit, and transfer the genetic code. Responsible for making and coding for all proteins.

Types of Carbon Compounds include that consist of which contain Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids Proteins Sugars and starches Fats and oils Nucleotides Amino Acids Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Carbon,hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen,