Basic Chemistry Review for APES What is MATTER? What is Energy?

Key Concepts Science as a process for understanding Components and regulation of systems Matter: forms, quality, and how it changes; laws of matter Energy: forms, quality, and how it changes; laws of energy Nuclear changes and radioactivity

Science, Environmental Science, and Critical Thinking Scientific data Scientific hypotheses Scientific (natural) laws Scientific theories Consensus science Frontier science Make new predictions Do experiments and collect data Well-tested and accepted patterns in the data become scientific laws hypotheses become scientific theories Make or revise hypotheses Fig. 3.2, p. 45

Models and Behavior of Systems Inputs Flows (throughputs) Stores (storage areas) Outputs

Positive feedback loop Negative feedback loop System Regulation Positive Feedback Homeostasis Negative Feedback Time Delay Synergy Rate of metabolic chemical reactions Heat input from sun and metabolism Heat loss from air cooling skin Heat in body Positive feedback loop Blood temperature in hypothalamus Excess temperature perceived by brain Sweat production by skin Negative feedback loop Fig. 3.4, p. 51

Matter: Forms, Structure, and Quality Elements Compounds Molecules Mixtures

Atoms Subatomic Particles Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Characteristics Atomic number Ions Atomic mass Isotopes

Examples of Atoms 143 n 146 n 92 p 0 n 1 p 1 n 2 n Hydrogen (H) 1e Mass number = 0 + 1 = 1 Hydrogen-1 (99.98%) Mass number = 1 + 1 = 2 Hydrogen-2 or deuterium (0.015%) Mass number = 2 + 1 = 3 Hydrogen-3 or tritium (T) (trace) Uranium (U) 143 n 92 p 146 n 92e Mass number = 143 + 92 = 235 Uranium-235 (0.7%) Mass number = 146 + 92 = 238 Uranium-238 (99.3%) Fig. 3.6, p. 55

Chemical Bonds Chemical formulas Ionic bonds Covalent bonds Hydrogen bonds

Organic Compounds Organic vs. inorganic compounds Hydrocarbons Chlorinated hydrocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons Simple carbohydrates Complex carbohydrates Proteins

Genetic Material Nucleic acids Genes Chromosomes Gene mutations The human body contains about 100 trillion cells. There is a nucleus inside each human cell (except red blood cells). Each contains 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs. One chromosome of every pair is from parent. chromosomes are filled with tightly coiled strands of DNA. Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins—the building blocks of life. There are approximately 140,000 genes in each cell, each coded by sequences of nucleotides in its DNA molecules. G T A C Fig. 3.8, p. 57

Matter Quality and Material Efficiency High-quality matter High Quality Solid Salt Coal Gasoline Aluminum can Low Quality Gas Solution of salt in water Coal-fired power plant emissions Automobile emissions Aluminum ore Low-quality matter Entropy Material efficiency (resource productivity) Fig. 3.9, p. 57

Review -Acids and Bases

Nonionizing radiation Energy: Forms Kinetic energy Potential energy Heat Sun High energy, short wavelength Low energy, long Ionizing radiation Nonionizing radiation Cosmic rays Gamma X rays Far ultraviolet waves Near Visible infrared microwaves TV Radio Wavelength in meters (not to scale) 10-14 10-12 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 Fig. 3.10, p. 58

Relative Energy Quality Electricity Very high temperature heat (greater than 2,500°C) Nuclear fission (uranium) Nuclear fusion (deuterium) Concentrated sunlight High-velocity wind High-temperature heat (1,000–2,500°C) Hydrogen gas Natural gas Gasoline Coal Food Normal sunlight Moderate-velocity wind High-velocity water flow Concentrated geothermal energy Moderate-temperature heat (100–1,000°C) Wood and crop wastes Dispersed geothermal energy Low-temperature heat (100°C or lower) Very high High Moderate Low Source of Energy Relative Energy Quality (usefulness) Energy tasks Very high-temperature heat (greater than 2,500°C) for industrial processes and producing electricity to run electrical devices (lights, motors) Mechanical motion (to move vehicles and other things) (1,000–2,500°C) for industrial processes and producing electricity (100–1,000°C) for industrial processes, cooking, producing steam, electricity, and hot water (100°C or less) for space heating High-quality energy Low-quality energy Fig. 3.11, p. 59

Physical and Chemical Changes Energy absorbed Melting Freezing Evaporation And boiling Condensation solid liquid gas Energy released Fig. 3.5, p. 54 Reactant(s) carbon + oxygen C + O2 CO2 + energy carbon dioxide + energy + energy Products(s) black solid colorless gas C O In-text, p. 59

The Law of Conservation of Matter Matter is not consumed Matter only changes form There is no “away”

Matter and Pollution Chemical nature of pollutants Concentration Persistence Degradable (nonpersistent) pollutants Biodegradable pollutants Slowly degradable (persistent) pollutants Nondegradable pollutants

Natural radioactive decay Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) Nuclear Changes Natural radioactive decay Radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes) Gamma rays Sheet of paper Block of wood Concrete wall Alpha Beta Gamma Alpha particles Beta particles Half life Ionizing radiation Fig. 3.12, p. 62

Nuclear Reactions Fission Fusion Fig. 3.16, p. 64 Fig. 3.17, p. 64 Fuel Reaction Conditions Products D-T Fusion Hydrogen-2 or deuterium nucleus Hydrogen-3 or tritium nucleus D-D Fusion + Neutron Energy Helium-4 nucleus Helium-3 100 million ˚C 1 billion ˚C Proton n U 235 92 36 Kr Ba 141 56 Fig. 3.16, p. 64 Fig. 3.17, p. 64

Fraction of original amount of 1 Fraction of original amount of plutonium-239 left 1/2 1/4 1/8 1st half-life 2nd half-life 3rd half-life 240,000 480,000 720,000 Fig. 3.13, p. 62 Time (years)

Natural sources 82% Human-generated 18% Other 1% Consumer Radon products 3% Radon 55% Nuclear medicine 4% Medical X rays 10% Space 8% Earth 8% The human body 11% Natural sources 82% Human-generated 18% Fig. 3.14, p. 63

The First Ironclad Law of Energy First Law of Thermodynamics (Energy) Energy is neither created nor destroyed Energy only changes form You can’t get something for nothing ENERGY IN = ENERGY OUT

Chemical Solar Chemical energy energy energy (food) Mechanical energy (photosynthesis) Mechanical energy (moving, thinking, living) Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Fig. 3.18, p. 66

The Second Ironclad Law of Energy Second Law of Thermodynamics In every transformation, some energy is converted to heat You cannot break even in terms of energy quality

Connections: Matter and Energy Laws and Environmental Problems High-throughput (waste) economy Matter-recycling economy Low-throughput economy Inputs (from environment) High-quality energy Matter System Throughputs Output (intro environment) Unsustainable high-waste economy Low-quality heat Waste matter and pollution Fig. 3.19, p. 66 See Fig. 3.20, p. 67