Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

LE 40-2 Tuna Shark Penguin Dolphin Seal

Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Atoms in combination Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Complex protein molecule Figure 1-1 2 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Atoms in combination Heart muscle cell Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Figure 1-1 3 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Tissue Level (Chapter 4) Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Cardiac muscle tissue Atoms in combination Tissue Level (Chapter 4) Heart muscle cell Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Figure 1-1 4 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Organ System Level (Chapters 5–20) Organ Level Tissue Level Cardiovascular Organ Level The heart Cardiac muscle tissue Atoms in combination Tissue Level (Chapter 4) Heart muscle cell Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Figure 1-1 5 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Organ System Level (Chapters 5–20) Organ Level Tissue Level Endocrine Cardiovascular Lymphatic Nervous Respiratory Muscular Digestive Skeletal Urinary Integumentary Reproductive Organ Level The heart Cardiac muscle tissue Atoms in combination Tissue Level (Chapter 4) Heart muscle cell Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Figure 1-1 6 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Organ Organism System Level Level (Chapters 5–20) Organ Level Endocrine Cardiovascular Lymphatic Nervous Respiratory Muscular Digestive Skeletal Urinary Integumentary Reproductive Organ Level The heart Cardiac muscle tissue Atoms in combination Tissue Level (Chapter 4) Heart muscle cell Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Chemical or Molecular Level (Chapter 2) Cellular Level (Chapter 3) Figure 1-1 7 of 7 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

LE 40-4 External environment CO2 Food O2 Mouth Animal body Respiratory system Blood 50 µm 0.5 cm A microscopic view of the lung reveals that it is much more spongelike than balloonlike. This construction provides an expansive wet surface for gas exchange with the environment (SEM). Cells Heart Nutrients Circulatory system 10 µm Digestive system Interstitial fluid Excretory system The lining of the small intestine, a digestive organ, is elaborated with fingerlike projections that expand the surface area for nutrient absorption (cross-section, SEM). Anus Inside a kidney is a mass of microscopic tubules that exchange chemicals with blood flowing through a web of tiny vessels called capillaries (SEM). Unabsorbed matter (feces) Metabolic waste products (urine)

The Integumentary System Figure 1-2(a)

The Skeletal System Figure 1-2(b)

The Muscular System Figure 1-2(c)

The Nervous System Figure 1-2(d)

The Endocrine System Figure 1-2(e)

The Cardiovascular System Figure 1-2(f)

The Lymphatic System Figure 1-2(g)

The Respiratory System Figure 1-2(h)

The Digestive System Figure 1-2(i)

The Urinary System Figure 1-2(j)

Male Reproductive System Figure 1-2(k)

Female Reproductive System Figure 1-2(l)

Homeostatic Regulation Homeostasis Maintains stable internal conditions Temperature Ionic concentrations Blood sugar levels, etc. Utilizes negative and positive feedback mechanisms Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Homeostatic Regulation Regulation depends on: Receptor sensitive to a particular stimulus Effector that affects the same stimulus Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature Figure 1-3 2 of 6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Normal condition disturbed STIMULUS: Room temperature rises RECEPTOR Normal condition disturbed Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature Figure 1-3 3 of 6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information Normal affects condition disturbed STIMULUS: RECEPTOR Information affects Normal condition disturbed Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature 20o 30o 40o Figure 1-3 4 of 6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information Normal affects condition disturbed STIMULUS: RECEPTOR Information affects Normal condition disturbed Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature 20o 30o 40o EFFECTOR Sends commands to Air conditioner turns on Figure 1-3 5 of 6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information Normal affects condition disturbed STIMULUS: RECEPTOR Information affects Normal condition disturbed Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature RESPONSE: Room temperature drops 20o 30o 40o Normal condition restored EFFECTOR Sends commands to Air conditioner turns on Figure 1-3 6 of 6 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Homeostatic Regulation Negative Feedback: Variation outside normal limits triggers automatic corrective response Response negates disturbance Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature rises above 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature rises Thermoregulatory center in brain Figure 1-4 2 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature rises above 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature rises Thermoregulatory center in brain Figure 1-4 3 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain Sends RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature rises above 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature rises EFFECTOR Thermoregulatory center in brain Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Sends commands to Figure 1-4 4 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS RESPONSE Thermoregulatory center in brain RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature rises above 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature rises RESPONSE Increased blood flow to skin Increased sweating Stimulus removed Homeostasis restored EFFECTOR Thermoregulatory center in brain Negative feedback Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Sends commands to Figure 1-4 5 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature falls below 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature falls Thermoregulatory center in brain Figure 1-4 6 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature falls below 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature falls Thermoregulatory center in brain Figure 1-4 7 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS Thermoregulatory center in brain Sends RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature falls below 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature falls Thermoregulatory center in brain EFFECTOR Sends commands to Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Skeletal muscles Figure 1-4 8 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Information affects STIMULUS RESPONSE Thermoregulatory center in brain RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS Body temperature falls below 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature falls RESPONSE Decreased blood flow to skin Decreased sweating Shivering Stimulus removed Homeostasis restored Thermoregulatory center in brain EFFECTOR Sends commands to Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Skeletal muscles Negative feedback Figure 1-4 9 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 1-4 1 of 10 Information affects Information affects RECEPTOR Body’s temperature sensors Body’s temperature sensors CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS STIMULUS Body temperature rises above 37.2oC (99oF) Body temperature falls below 37.2oC (99oF) Control mechanism when body temperature rises Control mechanism when body temperature falls RESPONSE RESPONSE Decreased blood flow to skin Decreased sweating Shivering Stimulus removed Homeostasis restored Increased blood flow to skin Increased sweating Stimulus removed Homeostasis restored Thermoregulatory center in brain EFFECTOR EFFECTOR Negative feedback Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Sends commands to Sends commands to Blood vessels and sweat glands in skin Skeletal muscles Negative feedback Figure 1-4 1 of 10 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Homeostatic Regulation Positive Feedback: Stimulus produces response that reinforces the stimulus Response rapidly completes critical process Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Homeostatic Regulation Figure 1-5

Tissue Structure and Function Types of Tissue Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous

LE 40-5_1 Simple Stratified columnar columnar epithelium epithelium EPITHELIAL TISSUE Columnar epithelia, which have cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes, are often located where secretion or active absorption of substances is an important function. Simple columnar epithelium Stratified columnar epithelium Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Cuboidal epithelia Stratified squamous epithelia Simple squamous epithelia Basement membrane 40 µm

LE 40-5_2 Chondrocytes Collagenous fiber Loose connective tissue 120 µm Chondrocytes Collagenous fiber Loose connective tissue Chondroitin sulfate Elastic fiber 100 µm Cartilage Fibrous connective tissue Adipose tissue Fat droplets Nuclei 150 µm 30 µm Blood Central canal Red blood cells Bone White blood cell Osteon Plasma 700 µm 55 µm

LE 40-5_3 Multiple nuclei Skeletal muscle Muscle fiber Sarcomere MUSCLE TISSUE 100 µm Multiple nuclei Skeletal muscle Muscle fiber Sarcomere Cardiac muscle Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 µm Nucleus Smooth muscle Muscle fibers 25 µm NERVOUS TISSUE Neuron Process Cell body Nucleus 50 µm

LE 40-6 Lumen of stomach Mucosa: an epithelial layer that lines the lumen Submucosa: a matrix of connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves Muscularis: consists mainly of smooth muscle tissue Serosa: a thin layer of connective and epithelial tissue external to the muscularis 0.2 mm

Bioenergetics Bioenergetics the flow of energy through an animal Limits: Behavior Growth Reproduction determines how much food an animal needs

LE 40-7 Organic molecules in food External environment Animal body Digestion and absorption Heat Energy lost in feces Nutrient molecules in body cells Energy lost in urine Carbon skeletons Cellular respiration Heat ATP Biosynthesis: growth, storage, and reproduction Cellular work Heat Heat

Quantifying Energy Use Metabolic rate the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time Measured by determining amount of oxygen consumed Amount of carbon dioxide produced

Ectotherms and Endotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-bird reptiles Lower metabolic rates Tolerate greater variation in internal temperature Endotherms Include birds and mammals Higher metabolic rates more energetically expensive

River otter (endotherm) LE 40-12 40 River otter (endotherm) 30 Body temperature (°C) 20 Largemouth bass (ectotherm) 10 10 20 30 40 Ambient (environmental) temperature (°C)

LE 40-13 Radiation Evaporation Convection Conduction

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain Five general adaptations help animals thermoregulate: Insulation mammals and birds Examples are skin, feathers, fur, and blubber Circulatory adaptations vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss Countercurrent heat exchanger

Canada goose Pacific bottlenose dolphin Blood flow Artery Vein Vein 33° 30° 27° 20° 18° 10° 9°

Skin Artery Vein Blood Capillary vessels network within in gills LE 40-16b Skin Artery Vein Blood vessels in gills Capillary network within muscle Heart Artery and vein under the skin Dorsal aorta Great white shark

Cooling by evaporative heat loss Sweat Panting Bathing Behavioral responses posture Adjusting metabolic heat production shivering

Adjustment to Changing Temperatures Hypothalamus – Temperature control center in mammals Acclimatization adjust to a new range of environmental temperatures period of days or weeks cellular adjustments adjustments of insulation Adjustments of metabolic heat production

Torpor and Energy Conservation activity is low and metabolism decreases enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions Hibernation long-term torpor adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity Estivation, summer torpor enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies

LE 40-22 Additional metabolism that would be necessary to stay active in winter 200 Actual metabolism Metabolic rate (kcal per day) 100 Arousals 35 Body temperature 30 25 20 Temperature (°C) 15 10 5 –5 Outside temperature Burrow temperature –10 –15 June August October December February April