Attempts at Reforms Widening gap between the rich and poor Latifundias Small farmers sell out – become homeless and jobless Discontent among the poor and slaves

Reforms, cont. Tiberius Gracchus Gaius Gracchus Gaius Marius Sulla Land reform Gaius Gracchus Public funds and grain Gaius Marius Any citizen could join army Served for pay, loot, public land Result: armies became loyal to their leaders Sulla Expelled Marius, civil war Executed thousands of citizens Ruled as a dictator

Julius Caesar Nephew of Marius, despised Sulla, and loved by the poor citizens of Rome Elected Consul First Triumvirate Governor of Gaul Commentaries (Veni,Vidi, Vici)

Pompey becomes Caesar’s rival, sole Consul Crassus died Pompey becomes Caesar’s rival, sole Consul Senate orders Caesar home Crossing the Rubicon Pompey fled Conquest of Egypt, Cleopatra Return to Rome, dictator Extent of Roman territory ca. 40bce Cleopatra

Government under Caesar: Republic form of government, acted as king Citizenship to many people Land to veterans, grain to poor Senate as advisory council, increased membership Solar based calendar 11 conspirators, led by Brutus and Cassius stabbed Caesar to death on the Ides of March

The Second Triumvirate Civil war between conspirators and Caesar’s allies Drove out conspirators, took control of Rome Ruled for 10 years Rivals, Octavian and Marc Antony Octavian in the west Marc Antony in the East Reconquered Syria, Asia Minor Cleopatra

War between Octavian and Marc Antony, Cleopatra Defeat at the Battle of Actium Suicide of Marc Antony and Cleopatra Octavian: Unchallenged ruler of Rome Accepted the title of Augustus Rome was now an empire, ruled by one man

Pax Romana (Roman Peace), 27bce-180ce A period of peace, stability, and unity 3 million square miles in size, 60-80 million inhabitants The emperor appointed officials to run the government

Used a common form of currency, denarius, which facilitated trade Vast trading network was protected by the Roman navy cities grew wealthy traded with India and China

“All roads lead to Rome . . .” Military Connections Exchange Provinces Spain, France, England, Germany, Greece, Egypt provided men for the army spread Roman customs

The Emperors The Good Emperors Nerva – heirs to throne Augustus Trajan – height of empire Hadrian – reogranized bureacracy Antoninus Pius – peace & prosperity Marcus Aurelius Augustus 27bce-14ce Frontiers Public works Civil service The Bad Emperors Caligula – mentally unstable Nero – persecuted Christians Domitian - paranoid

Life in Rome Paterfamilias Women Children Education Controlled property Authority over family members Women Household Property Jobs Children Sons Daughters Education Boys and school Girls

Slavery Religion Wealthy City of Rome POWs Property Manual labor Gladiators Religion Based on Greek gods Emperor worship Wealthy Homes Luxuries Banquets City of Rome Unemployment Colosseum – Bread and circuses