Psychology in Everyday Life David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2011

Learning Chapter 6

Definition: Learning “Learning” is defined in psychology as ‘a relatively permanent behavior change as a result of experience.

Learning How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Pavlov’s Legacy

Learning Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s Legacy Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning

Learning Biology, Cognition, and Learing Biological Constraints on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning Learning by Observation

How Do We Learn? By linking events that occur close together, humans and other animals exhibit associative learning. This process of learning associations is called conditioning. There is also cognitive learning, the acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning A stimulus is an event or situation that evokes a response. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli; the unconditioned response to one stimulus becomes the conditioned response to the other.

Classical Conditioning This woman has now been conditioned to have a negative response to the flash of light, even before or without the loud noise.

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Classical Conditioning The neutral stimulus (NS) elicits no response before conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus which triggers a reflex (automatic response, UR) without conditioning. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with a US, comes to trigger a CR.

Classical Conditioning The unconditioned response (UR) is an unlearned, natural response to a US The conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (CS). It is the same action as the unconditioned response, except that it is now triggered by the formerly neutral stimulus (now CS).

Conditioning Processes Pavlov and his associates identified five major conditioning processes: Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination

Acquisition Acquisition is the first stage in classical conditioning – where a NS is linked with a US that the NS begins triggering the CS Why are our bodies set up to be conditioned? Classical conditioning helps us prepare for good and bad events. This is why the neutral stimulus must happen first for conditioning to occur; it is the event we use as a warning for the bad, a clue that helps us find the good!

Acquisition

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery If, following acquisition, the CS occurs repeatedly without the US, it can lead to extinction, the weakening of the CR. After a delay (a few hours more), however, the CS may elicit a spontaneous recovery of a (weakened) CR

Generalization Generalization: after conditioning, an organism may respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS This can be adaptive, but also have lingering effects A child scared by a red car learns to avoid stepping in front of all vehicles.

Generalization Child abuse can lead to general hypersensitivity to the faces of any angry person, not just their abusers.

Discrimination Organisms also learn to discriminate, or distinguish, between a CS and other stimuli. Consider your responses to a guard dog and a guide dog: would they both make your heart pound with fear?”

Pavlov’s Legacy Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other creatures This is one way that virtually all animals learn to adapt to their environment A process such as learning can be studied objectively

Can Pavlov’s work help us understand emotions? Little Albert John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) worked with 11-month old boy Initially feared loud noises but not white rats Presented him with white rat, and just as he reached out to touch it, made a very loud noise just behind his head After 7 repeats, burst into tears at sight of rat 5 days later, he had generalized this fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat

Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior, an automatic response to a stimulus It involves operant behavior, which operates on the environment, producing consequences Consequences: Reinforcers following a behavior strengthen it (make that behavior more likely to happen again), and Punishments following a behavior weaken that response (make it less likely to recur.

Operant Conditioning (a) Response: (b) Consequence: (c) Behavior stregthened Balancing a ball Receiving Food

B. F. Skinner’s Experiments Skinner designed an operant chamber (aka Skinner Box) – a box with a recording device to track how often an animal presses a bar to obtain reinforcement – any event or other consequence that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Reinforcement for the Individual What is reinforcing to one individual? Can vary by situation – a cold drink is reinforcing if you are hot, but not if you are cold

Shaping Behavior Shaping: gradually guiding actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior, using reinforcement. Using successive approximations, one rewards responses that are ever-closer to the desired behavior. Through continued shaping we can find the limits of animals’ ability to discriminate among colors, smells, sounds.

Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcement: (+, adding) anything that strengthens a response when presented after the response (e.g., a food reward) Negative reinforcement: (-, taking away) anything that, when removed, strengthens a response (e.g., stopping a shock). Note: NOT a punishment

Ways to Increase Behavior

Types of Reinforcers A primary reinforcer is innately reinforcing (e.g., giving food when hungry, or alleviating a headache). A conditioned (secondary) reinforcer gains its reinforcing power through links with a primary reinforcer. Most organisms require immediate reinforcement, but humans can also use delayed reinforcement (e.g., the paycheck at the end of the week).

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing desired response every time it occurs Learning occurs rapidly, but so does extinction Partial (intermittent) reinforcement – reinforcing a response only part of the time Learning is slower but increased resistance to extinction

Partial Reinforcement Schedules for Operant Conditioning Fixed-ratio schedule – reinforces response only after fixed number of responses Variable-ratio schedule – reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses Produces high rates of responding Fixed-interval schedule – reinforces response only after a specified time has elapsed Produces choppy start-stop pattern Variable-interval schedule – reinforces response at variable time intervals Produces slow, steady responding

Schedules of Reinforcement

Punishment A punishment is an event that decreases the frequency of the behavior it follows Two Types of punishment: Positive (+, adding something) Punishment Negative (-, taking something away) Punishment.”

Punishment

Physical Punishment for Children: Why Not? Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior Punishment teaches discrimination (rule learned: don’t swear at home) Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness

Physical Punishment for Children A single swat or two may be effective for 2 to 6-year-olds if: The swat is only used for backup when milder tactics fail The swat is combined with reasoning and reinforcing Remember: Punishment tells you what not to do, reinforcement tells you what to do

Skinner’s Legacy: Controversy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Applications of Operant Conditioning In school: use individualized shaping to reinforce students starting with their current level of performance. At work: reinforce, even with verbal acknowledgement, specific behaviors and achievements At home: be careful not to reward tantrums and not to be negatively reinforced by giving in.

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Natural selection favors traits that aid survival. This applies to conditioning: Each species comes prepared to learn those things crucial to its survival.

Biological Constraints on Conditioning Male associate red with sexual attractiveness– why? Female primates display red when nearing ovulation Human females tend to blush more

Limits on Classical Conditioning All conditioned stimuli are not equal Rats avoided a taste – but not sights or sounds – associated with being sick Taste aversion: animals are biologically predisposed to learn by eating food, not by the appearance of food, which foods make us sick.

Limits on Operant Conditioning Animals can most easily learn behaviors that draw on their biological predispositions YES: Train a pigeon to flap wings to avoid a shock, and peck to obtain food NO: Train a pigeon to peck to avoid a shock, and to flap wings to obtain food Biology predisposes us to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning Behaviorism: The view that (1) psychology should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes Founded by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2) Underestimates two important sets of influences: Biological predispositions limit our learning The effect of our cognitive processes on learning

Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner tried to downplay the role of cognitive processes. However, they cannot be ignored Rats exploring a maze develop a cognitive map, a mental representation of the maze. Rats with experience in the maze exhibit latent learning of the maze’s layout

Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning Excess rewards can destroy intrinsic motivation, the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. This is in contrast to extrinsic motivation, in which behavior is performed to gain reward or avoid punishment.

Learning By Observation Cognition is a factor in observational learning, in which humans and some other animals learn without direct experience – by watching and imitating

Observational Learning Bandura’s (1961) Bobo doll experiments showed the importance of modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirrors in the Brain Mirror neurons fire when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions A neural basis for observational learning and imitation Peope with autism display less imitative behavior, and reduced mirror neuron activity

Mirrors in the Brain If we see a loved one in pain, our face mirrors their expression, and so does our brain

Applications of Observational Learning Models of prosocial behavior – helpful, constructive behavior – can have prosocial effects. Unfortunately, antisocial behavior can also be learned by observation