Revolution as Social and Cultural Change Echoes of revolutionary thought could be found throughout the 19th century 1830, 1848, and 1870 were focal points for revolution in Europe Focused on republicanism, greater social equality, and expulsion of foreign rulers, and on ethnic unity By 1900 most countries had established universal manhood suffrage. Even Russia experienced a brief revolutionary movement although it was suppressed Abolitionist, nationalist, and feminist movements grew out of the early and later revolutionary periods

Abolition: Freeing the slaves and the serfs in America and europe By 1890 slavery had ended in most areas of the world legally. Slavery was gone from the Americas and Europe and on the run in the rest of the world. What caused this immense change in how societies looked at slavery? While there are many reasons we will look at several important aspects of how societies began to understand the wrongness of slavery.

Causes for the rise of abolitionism in the 19th century As early as the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers had criticized human slavery as opposed to the doctrines of natural law and liberty American and French revolutionaries focused attention on the lack of liberty and equality. Of course not all revolutionaries believed this but a substantial number did Religious groups in England and the US, especially Protestant and Quakers, became more and more vocal and active in their opposition to slavery on moral grounds As machines became more important to the production of goods, more people began to believe that slavery was an antiquated, inefficient way to create goods and wealth. Economic progress did not depend on the forced labor of people but on their free choices

Causes for abolition Major slave rebellions, in the Caribbean area and in the US southern states pointed out the fact that slaves were not satisfied with their lives. Brutal methods were used to put down the rebellions causing many people to identify slavery with immoral and sadistic practices.

Emancipation and abolition Abolition movements were most powerful in England despite its dependence on slave grown American cotton for it industrial growth. In 1807 Britain banned the sale of slaves in its empire and in 1834 freed all of the slaves in its territories paying the owners compensation for this. International pressure and the British fleet soon forced other countries to do the same. In some cases it was peaceful and in others not. Latin American countries abolished slavery by the 1850’s; Brazil in 1888. Russian serfs were freed in 1863. In the United States, slavery was ended by a Civil War which claimed over 600,000 lives the equivalent of 6,000,000 today. Resistance to abolition could be extremely violent

Outcomes of abolition Often expected results of abolition did not materialize In general there was little improvement in the economic status or well being of former slaves or of the freed serfs in Russia Former slaves did not want to work on the plantations where they had been enslaved, seeking new opportunities elsewhere. There was massive migration of the former slaves in all regions Few of the newly freed slaves gained political equality Slavery persisted in some areas of the Islamic world and in Africa, but in Islam freeing of slaves was encouraged more and more over time

The rise of the nation and nationalism The revolutions gave rise to a new understanding of human community called the NATION Prior to the 19th century and the age of revolution, most important loyalties people had were to clan, village, region. The revolutionary period saw the development of a new understanding: humans are divided into distinct units, the nation, with distinct culture and territory. These units have a right to an independent political life free from domination by any other state. Independence movements from 1789 on acted in the name of the nation as older loyalties weakened and eroded

The nation and nationalism Science weakened the hold of religion on peoples The industrial revolution and the growth of urban areas weakened local allegiances Migration during the 19th century was unprecedented in world history with a resulting realignment of people’s loyalties to their new “nation” The use of standardized languages and the spread of literacy and printed matter did away with many local dialects, allowing people to better express and understand the concept of nationhood Nationalism could also reawaken older cultural identities as in the case of Germany or Italy

The nation and nationalism Nationalism was very powerful in the 19th century in Europe Germany and Italy were forged through a process that encouraged nationalist thinking and derided regionalism Many ethnic groups in Europe began to think about and agitate for national status: Greeks, Serbs, Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians, Bulgarians, Belgians, Irish, Poles, Ukrainians, Jews As new national states developed, power rivalries began to be exacerbated and new rivalries formed. Alliances of nations rather than of rulers became normal. Even in nations where monarchs still ruled, parliaments and “national sentiment” often were stronger features of government than the rulers.

Promoting nationalism Promotion of nationalism took many and various forms There were different political ideologies among the new nations Some nations defined themselves with a particular area and encouraged the assimilation of all living in the area to become “citizens” of the nation Other nations identified or defined the nation in racial terms or in linguistic terms Although nationalism began in Europe it could not and was not confined to Europe. The Americas in the 19th century and the rest of the world in the 20th experienced the growth and development of the nation state as the most important political undertaking

Promoting nationalism In many countries, schools were (are) required to indoctrinate students in the concepts of national honor, civic pride, and the rightness of their nation. Patriotic displays of national symbols and national holidays stressed the importance of belonging to the community of the nation In the case of the US, the country existed before it became a nation. Nation hood for the US really didn’t exist until after the Civil War due to a variety of political and social factors.

Feminism: let’s hear it for the ladies European enlightenment thinkers had sometimes challenged received wisdom about gender differences, in particular women’s inferiority to men From this beginning and partly as a result of the revolutionary period, feminist movements began to develop in North America and Western Europe. During the French Revolution some argued for liberty and equality that would include women. Many French women fought in the Revolution; writers like Mme. DeStael penned articles focusing on women and their needs in an equal society.

feminism Middle class women increasingly found opportunities for education and outside activities through involvement in work for charities and social causes Women joined, and in many instances spearheaded, efforts to reduce violence against women, reduce drunkenness (temperance), to abolish slavery, spread religious messages, and to agitate for more equality Some feminists argued that women hold a special place in society because they have a distinctive human role: mother

feminism Although derided by men and some women, the feminist movement gained momentum in the mid 19th century The first truly organized feminist convention occurred at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. This may rightfully be seen as the begin of modern feminism in the world. Feminism in the US became deeply involved in abolitionism to its detriment. The feminist movement lost focus until the 1870’s when it revived as a means to gain political and social rights for women. European feminism had always been focused on these issues.

feminism From 1870 to 1930 most feminists focused on gaining the right to vote All classes in society became part of the feminist movement: well to do women, middle class women, and poor women shared the bonds of sisterhood in the movement Most feminists worked peacefully towards their goals; some, especially in England, became radicalized and attacked men and politicians who did not agree with their goals. By 1900, feminism attracted large groups of women (and some men) in most industrialized countries.

Did feminism have any visible effects? Some women had been admitted to universities by 1900 Several women had become professionals such as doctors and lawyers but not without much discrimination and prejudice Women’s literacy rates were rising across Europe. In the US female literacy rates were now higher than male rates Some US states passed laws allowing women to control their own property and earned income. Most of these states were in the west and southwest of the country

Effects? Some countries and states in the US liberalized divorce laws so that women could initiate divorce against their husbands During the late 19th century teaching below the high school level had become a primarily female occupation. By 1920 most teachers below college level were female. New Zealand granted the vote to women in 1893. (1st to do this.) Discussion of the role of women and women’s issues began with earnest, if painful, conversations: taboo subjects such as sexual topics and roles; reproductive rights and birth control were also talked about. Many debates over women’s proper role in society were held-between men and women and between women and women

Effects? There was much opposition to the feminist movement from men and also from a minority of women Argued that the strains of education and life outside the home would damage a woman’s ability to have children and to raise them properly Many equated feminists and suffragettes with communists and socialists and as a bad thing for a nation to have Feminism spread beyond Europe and the United States, primarily after this period; however, feminism was never as widespread or implemented as completely as the concept of nationalism.

Last call: revolutions pro or con The legacies of the revolutions in the Atlantic are still debated and controversial today To some, the revolutionary period opened new worlds of human potential and fulfilled many of the calls for freedom and liberty Others became victims of revolution, those who gained neither freedom or liberty but death and destruction Some believed that the revolutionary period ignored what was good about the past and was too radical arguing that change needs to be organic and evolve over time Some historians argue the revolutions may have been unnecessary. This can never be resolved satisfactorily since history cannot be rewritten only debated.