Supportive evidence – different forms of myths to convey meaning: creation myths; myths of good against evil; heroic myths. Myths help to overcome fears of the unknown; myths effective way of transmitting religious, social and ethical values.

Challenges: problem of competing myths; meanings of myths change over time as they reflect the values of society as societal constructs; demythologisation of myths results in varying interpretations, myths often incompatible with scientific understanding of the world.

Language Game Theory Religious language as a language game: Meaningful to people who participate in same language game (Ludwig Wittgenstein). Supportive evidence – non-cognitive form of language provides meaning to participants within language game; consider use of language not meaning; language games fit with coherence theory of truth; religious language as expressions of belief. Challenges, including rejection of any true propositions in religion that can be empirically verified; does not allow for meaningful conversations between different groups of language users; does not provide adequate meaning for the word ‘God’.

Summary of Language Game Theory - CL

“Philosophical problems arise when language goes on holiday.” Wittgenstein What do we know about Wittgenstein already? Use your SIL and A3 sheet notes “Philosophical problems arise when language goes on holiday.” The wire - It's all in the game

Wittgenstein and Language Games Ludwig Wittgenstein changed his views on how language works. In his Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein focussed on the uses language can be put to. Famously, he wrote: “Don’t ask me for the meaning, ask for the use.” So, he was now less concerned with the truth or falsity of language (compared to his picture theory). For religious language, function might be more important than meaning. 1 Explain how Wittgenstein’s ideas changed?

Language Games – ‘form of life’ Wittgenstein argued that language works through a series of ‘language games’ - meaning only comes out of context; we have to know what ‘game’ that our terms are being used in. Problems in philosophy may occur through misunderstanding that words can be used in different language games. For Wittgenstein, meaning is about observing rules (convention) – just like in a game. There’s a right way and a wrong way to do things. So with religion – there might be conventional or unconventional ways to talk about God. 2 How did Wittgenstein think that language works in a game? Examples?

Activity Try to explain the rules of cricket, some other team sport, hobby or the techniques of art or photography to someone else who knows nothing about the game or activity. What problems do you encounter? It might seem that the language only makes sense in the context of that ‘game’ Cricket!

Analogies for language game theory What do you think this analogy is? Page 28 Train analogy Tools = words

Language Games and Religion The theory of language games could be a good defence of religious language because of the connection it makes with the ‘coherence theory of truth’. This is the view that statements are true if they fit with other statements and beliefs which are internally consistent. It could be argued that the ‘game’ of religious language cannot be criticised because internally it is coherent and intelligible. Religious views fit with other religious views. Perhaps religion is just a ‘language game’, and it will all make sense if we just participate. 3 Why did Wittgenstein believe we should not criticise language games and how does this connect to religious language?

AO2 The danger of this is that it could be too relativistic, allowing that any claims are equally valid. It also doesn’t explain how we could challenge religious truth claims. Also, it’s not quite clear whether Wittgenstein thought of religion as a ‘language game’. He had a certain respect for religion, but wrote little about it himself.

Soul example Complete task 29 Believer ‘I have a soul’ Scientist ‘I am going to try and find out if the soul is a physical object through testing’ Using all the information on the PP P and on pages 28 and 29 what would Wittgenstein say was the problem with this? Use the terms Category mistake Forms of life Clash of language games Anti-realist Complete task 29

The Religious Language Game: D.Z. Phillips D. Z. Phillips has applied Wittgenstein’s language game theory to religious belief. “If a philosopher wants to give an account of religion, he (?) must pay attention to what religious believers do and say … It is not the task of a philosopher to decide whether there is a God or not, but to ask what it means to affirm or deny the existence of God.”

The Religious Language Game: D.Z. Phillips Phillips takes on the idea that religion is a language game, extending this to the claim that religion cannot be either based on or criticised using reason – it is a system all of its own. For Phillips, the ‘reality’ of God or religion does not lie in the abstract issue of whether God exists, but instead is located in the words and practice of religion. What God is, is defined by the language game of faith. Just as in the general games of life, we do not require an abstract justification to work out ‘what they are all about’, so too with religion: we have to take part to find out. Question on the next slide

Examples 4 Extra scholar - Explain how Phillips applied Wittgenstein’s ideas to religious language? Example Explanation I believe in God The key issue is what does it mean to believers not . . . ‘I believe in eternal life’ Not literal – It refers to

Highlight five pieces of supporting evidence Supportive evidence – non-cognitive form of language provides meaning to participants within language game; consider use of language not meaning; language games fit with coherence theory of truth; religious language as expressions of belief. Read page 31 Highlight five pieces of supporting evidence Think of three examples from Christianity to demonstrate the coherence theory of truth Create spider diagram or mind map or list of key points – you must have an example for each one Can you make a link to any other areas of the course.

Highlight five challenges Challenges, including rejection of any true propositions in religion that can be empirically verified; does not allow for meaningful conversations between different groups of language users; does not provide adequate meaning for the word ‘God’. Read page 32 Highlight five challenges Think of three examples from Christianity to demonstrate the challenges Create spider diagram of key points and examples Can you make a link to any other areas of the course.

Picture sentence starter Put the picture in the correct order

Evaluating Language Games Supporting evidence It highlights the non-cognitive nature of religious language e.g. ‘I baptise you’ this is to perform a ritual, it would gain its meaning from the context in which it was said – it is understandable among the community of believers participating in the ritual of baptism, it announces the changed status of the participant to a full member of the community. This is a fairly specialised area, and the language is performing a specialised job. It distinguishes it from other forms of language It provides boundaries for the uses of language Statements are judged within their context – they are not inherently true or false Challenges Believers’ claims cannot be empirically tested, believers can say anything that they want – anything can be passed off as religious truth It alienates people not initiated into the rules of the game Religious statements do aim to correspond with reality – God, Judgement & Afterlife are real to a believer, they are not simply ideas. Many religious statements do seem to be making assertions that exist at least partly in other areas, historical, even statements about the world like science, so surely it is an oversimplification to think that each area is self-contained with its own rules, and therefore that in some sense religious language must be at least partially open to judgement by say, historical or scientific rules .

Evaluating language games Strengths Criticisms Language games theory’s strength is that it accounts for the way in which much language is used; there is not one correct way of applying rules of meaning outside of the circumstances in which the sentences are being said – so jokes, cursing, blessings, cries of pain, analytical sentences, scientific sentences, all have their own internal coherence and meaning. Language games allow . .. Language games recognise that each religion is distinct One criticism of this is that then believers can say anything that they want – anything can be passed off as religious truth

Criticisms of Wittgenstein / Phillips Wittgenstein’s views on language are controversial, as they reject the popular view that language can be objective and scientific. He implies that our language can never convey truth in an absolute sense – can we agree with that conclusion? Wittgenstein’s theory implies that there could be no progress in philosophical debates, which are based on misunderstandings of language. Might this opinion be unduly negative? Phillips claims Wittgenstein to support his view of religion, but arguably this leads to irrationalism and blind faith. Why should believers be allowed to say that the game of religious language requires no justification? This could be used to justify extremism or superstition. 5 Summarise the criticisms in your own words

Some points to think about: Does language work in a game? Can you give examples? Is Phillips justified in seeing religion another ‘language game’? Is Wittgenstein’s later view right: is the use of language more fundamental than meaning?

What was the picture theory of language? Homework checker – discussion activity Whereof we cannot speak . . .Steve McCarthy Read your notes on the article about Wittgenstein and check they include the answers the questions. What was the picture theory of language? What is Wittgenstein’s concept of language games? Give examples of how ‘rules’ may change over time. How are Wittgenstein’s two theories different? What criticisms does McCarthy identify?

Picture sentence summary Put the pictures in the correct order