Recasts, Task Complexity, and the Acquisition of the Past Progressive TBLT 2007 Conference Andrea Révész Georgetown University (ar429@georgetown.edu)

Background There has been a growing interest in task-based language teaching over the past two decades.

Background Platform for a focus on Task-based instruction appears to provide a psycholinguistically optimal environment for SLA. Exposure to input and opportunities for output Platform for a focus on language form Implicit learning Explicit learning most desirable for SLA

Focus on Language Form in Task-based Instruction Learners’ chances of attending to form can be maximized by attentional manipulation of task variables (e.g., Skehan, 1998). Grammar instruction can be integrated into TBLT in the form of focus on form, by drawing learners’ attention to form reactively (e.g., Long, 2000; Long & Robinson, 1998).

The Purpose of the Study Task Complexity Task Complexity ? L2 learning ? Focus on Form Focus on Form

The Purpose of the Study Task Complexity ? L2 learning Focus on Form

Task Complexity and L2 Learning While there is considerable evidence that task complexity can affect the extent of learner attention to form during L2 production, only a few empirical studies have attempted to establish a direct link between task complexity and second language acquisition (e.g. Nuevo, 2006). One major goal of this study was, therefore, to further investigate the relationship between task complexity and L2 learning.

Focus on Form: Recasts Correct reformulations of the learners’ incorrectly formed utterance. Learner utterance: He was in the restaurant with his wife. He eating ravioli. Recasting: He was eating ravioli.

Research on Recasts Research to date suggests that recasts can facilitate L2 development. Their efficacy is a function of several internal and external variables.

Task: A potential modulating variable More recent research has also identified task as a potential modulating variable (Long, 2007; Robinson, 2001, 2003, 2005). Except for the pilot for this study (Révész & Han, 2006), no empirical study has directly investigated the impact of task variables on the efficacy of recasts. Another goal of this study was to further explore the relationship between task complexity and the effectiveness of recasts.

Disperses attention over many non-specific areas of the L2 Robinson’s Cognition Hypothesis +planning time -planning time +prior knowledge - prior knowledge + single task - single task +no reasoning - no reasoning + few elements -few elements +there-and-then +here-and-now simple task complex task + resource-directing dimensions Directs attention to specific L2 forms Disperses attention over many non-specific areas of the L2 resource-dispersing dimensions

Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts Decreasing task complexity along resource-dispersing dimensions attention less dispersed over non-specific L2 features greater control over existing L2 knowledge more extensive noticing of recasts

Increasing task complexity along greater amount of analysis, Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts Increasing task complexity along resource-directing dimensions attention directed to specific L2 features greater amount of analysis, new L2 knowledge more extensive noticing of recasts

+/- Contextual Support Operationalized as the availability versus unavailability of a previously viewed photo while describing the photo. The +/-contextual support dimension appears resource-dispersing. While describing a photo in the absence of visual support involves a dual task (i.e., remembering a photo plus describing it), describing a photo in the presence of visual support entails a single task (i.e., describing the photo).

Implication of the Cognition Hypothesis Regarding L2 Learning and Recasts Decreasing task complexity along resource-dispersing dimensions attention less dispersed over non-specific L2 features greater control over existing L2 knowledge more extensive noticing of recasts

Research Question 1: Hypothesis 1: Do learners who have received recasts on their L2 output show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have not? Hypothesis 1: Yes, they do.

Research Question 2: Hypothesis 2: Do learners who have received recasts in the presence of contextual support show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have received recasts when no contextual support was available? Hypothesis 2: Yes, they do.

Research Question 3: Hypothesis 3: Do learners who have performed tasks in the presence of contextual support show greater development in the knowledge of, and ability to use, the target feature than learners who have performed tasks when no contextual support was available? Hypothesis 3: They will show greater development in the ability to use, but not in the knowledge of, the target form.

Participants 90 EFL learners enrolled in elementary or pre-intermediate language classes in three high schools in Hungary. The participants’ age ranged from 17-19. Native speakers of Hungarian.

The Design of the Study Pretest Treatment Posttest Delayed Posttest

The Design of the Study Group Treatment Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp. Control Pretest Treatment Posttest Delayed Posttest Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp. Control

The Design of the Study Group Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp. Control Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later Exp. Photo Descrip 3 Photo Descrip 4 Photo Descrip 5 Exp. Photo Descrip 3 Photo Descrip 4 Photo Descrip 5 Exp. Photo Descrip 3 Photo Descrip 4 Photo Descrip 5 Exp. Photo Descrip 3 Photo Descrip 4 Photo Descrip 5 Control

Treatment Task The treatment task was contextualized in the hypothetical scenario that the participants were taking photos in a New York City neighborhood (e.g., Soho) exactly at a time when a crime (e.g., a bank robbery) happened in that area. The participants’ task was to describe the photos they took to the researcher, who acted as a police officer.

Treatment Task Three versions prepared by the computer program Microsoft PowerPoint. Each description task included 10 photos. In each photo, people were engaged in clearly identifiable activities.

LAST SUNDAY, 1:00 pm

Please describe the photo now!

The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo Exp -Photo Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo Exp -Photo -Photo -Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo Exp -Photo -Photo -Photo Control

The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo Control

The Design of the Study Group +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo +Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo -Photo Control

The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast Exp. -Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast Exp. -Recast -Recast -Recast Exp. -Recast -Recast -Recast Control

Treatment Recasts provided by the researcher consistent simple isolated declarative type

The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast -Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast +Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast -Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast Control

The Design of the Study Recasts Group +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast -Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast Recasts +Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast -Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast Control

The Design of the Study Recasts ~ Contextual Support Group +Photo Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast +Photo Recast +Photo Recast +Photo Recast Recasts ~ Contextual Support -Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast +Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast -Photo Nonrecast -Recast -Recast -Recast Control

The Design of the Study Contextual Support Group +Photo Recast +Photo Pretest 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast +Photo Recast +Photo Recast +Photo Recast -Photo Recast +Recast +Recast +Recast +Photo Nonrecast +Photo -Recast +Photo -Recast +Photo -Recast Contextual Support -Photo Nonrecast -Photo -Recast -Photo -Recast -Photo -Recast Control

The Design of the Study Group +Photo Recast Pretest +Photo +Recast 1st day Session 1. 2nd day Session 2. 3rd day Session 3. 4th day Posttest 4th day Delayed Posttest 4 weeks later +Photo Recast Pretest +Photo +Recast +Photo +Recast +Photo +Recast Posttest Delayed Posttest -Photo Recast Pretest -Photo +Recast -Photo +Recast -Photo +Recast Posttest Delayed Posttest +Photo Nonrecast Pretest +Photo -Recast +Photo -Recast +Photo -Recast Posttest Delayed Posttest +Photo Nonrecast Pretest -Photo -Recast -Photo -Recast -Photo -Recast Posttest Delayed Posttest Pretest Control Posttest Delayed Posttest

The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors Within-group factor Recasts Contextual Support Time +Recasts -Recasts +Photo -Photo Pretest Posttest Del. Posttest Dependent variable: Development

The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors Within-group factor Recasts Contextual Support Time +Recasts -Recasts +Photo -Photo Pretest Posttest Del. Posttest Dependent variable: Development

The Design of the Study Independent variables Between-groups factors Within-group factor Recasts Contextual Support Time +Recasts -Recasts +Photo -Photo Pretest Posttest Del. Posttest Dependent variable: Development

The Design of the Study Dependent variable: Development Independent variables Between-groups factors Within-group factor Recasts Contextual Support Time +Recasts -Recasts +Photo -Photo Pretest Posttest Del. Posttest Dependent variable: Development

Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control Dependent Variable Development ~ Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control

Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control Dependent Variable Development ~ Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control

Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control Dependent Variable Development ~ Acquisition of knowledge Acquisition of Control

Linguistic Focus Past progressive used for an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past “They were working at 7 o’clock last night.”

Developmental Readiness Bardovi-Harlig (2000) identified three stages of the emergence of the past progressive 1. bare progressive 2. present progressive 3. past progressive Participants considered developmentally ready for the acquisition of the past progressive prior emergence of the present progressive Participants showed no use of the past progressive on any of the pretests

Pretest/Posttest/Delayed Posttest Selected Response Task Grammaticality Judgment Task Limited Production Task Fill-in-the-Gap Task Extended Production Tasks Written Picture Description Task Oral Photo Description Task with Photo Support Oral Photo Description Task without Photo Support Exit Questionnaire

Pretest/Posttest/Delayed Posttest Selected Response Task Grammaticality Judgment Task Limited Production Task Fill-in-the-Gap Task Extended Production Tasks Written Picture Description Task Oral Photo Description Task with Photo Support Oral Photo Description Task without Photo Support Exit Questionnaire

Oral Photo Description Tasks With/Without Photo Support Designed to tap changes in the learners’ control over the use of past progressive form during oral performance. These tasks had the same format as the treatment tasks.

Written Picture Description Task Designed to tap changes in the learners’ control over the use of past progressive form in a written environment. The participants were asked to describe a picture in which eight people were engaged in various activities in a park.

Data Analysis Interlanguage (IL) scores Calculated based on the developmental sequence for the past progressive. Submitted to many-faceted Rasch measurement. Nature of developmental changes Considered whether the past progressive had appeared in participants’ IL Qualitative analysis conducted on the exit questionnaire data

Multi-faceted Rasch Analysis The Rasch model is a probabilistic measurement model. The analysis calculates item difficulty, person ability and other facets that contribute to test score variation simultaneously. It produces estimates for each of these facets on the same true interval scale, known as the logit scale.

Facets Summary for the Oral and Written Description Tasks ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale| + 4 + + + + + + + (6) + | | | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | | | --- | + 3 + + + + + + + + | | | | | | Control Group | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | * | | | | | | | + 2 + + + + + + + + | | *** | | | | | | --- | | | ** | | | | | | | + 1 + ** + + -Recast Treatment + + + + 4 + | | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | | | | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | | | | ***** | | | | | | --- | | | ***** | | | | | | | | | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | | * 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 * | | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | | | | ******* | Written description | | | | | | | | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- | | | ****** | | | | | | | + -1 + ***** + + +Recast Treatment + + + + 2 + | | *** | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | | | | * | | | | | | --- | + -2 + + + + + + + + | | **** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | | + -3 + + + + + + + (0) + |Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Logit scale

Facets Summary for the Oral and Written Description Tasks High gain ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale| + 4 + + + + + + + (6) + | | | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | | | --- | + 3 + + + + + + + + | | | | | | Control Group | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | * | | | | | | | + 2 + + + + + + + + | | *** | | | | | | --- | | | ** | | | | | | | + 1 + ** + + -Recast Treatment + + + + 4 + | | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | | | | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | | | | ***** | | | | | | --- | | | ***** | | | | | | | | | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | | * 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 * | | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | | | | ******* | Written description | | | | | | | | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- | | | ****** | | | | | | | + -1 + ***** + + +Recast Treatment + + + + 2 + | | *** | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | | | | * | | | | | | --- | + -2 + + + + + + + + | | **** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | | + -3 + + + + + + + (0) + |Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Participants’ gains Low gain

Recast > Nonrecast ~ Hypothesis 1 Less effective ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale| + 4 + + + + + + + (6) + | | | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | | | --- | + 3 + + + + + + + + | | | | | | Control Group | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | * | | | | | | | + 2 + + + + + + + + | | *** | | | | | | --- | | | ** | | | | | | | + 1 + ** + + -Recast Treatment + + + + 4 + | | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | | | | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | | | | ***** | | | | | | --- | | | ***** | | | | | | | | | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | | * 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 * | | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | | | | ******* | Written description | | | | | | | | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- | | | ****** | | | | | | | + -1 + ***** + + +Recast Treatment + + + + 2 + | | *** | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | | | | * | | | | | | --- | + -2 + + + + + + + + | | **** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | | + -3 + + + + + + + (0) + |Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Effects of Recasts on Gain Scores More effective

+Recast–Photo > +Recast+Photo ≠ Hypothesis 2 Low gain ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale| + 4 + + + + + + + (6) + | | | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | | | --- | + 3 + + + + + + + + | | | | | | Control Group | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | * | | | | | | | + 2 + + + + + + + + | | *** | | | | | | --- | | | ** | | | | | | | + 1 + ** + + -Recast Treatment + + + + 4 + | | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | | | | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | | | | ***** | | | | | | --- | | | ***** | | | | | | | | | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | | * 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 * | | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | | | | ******* | Written description | | | | | | | | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- | | | ****** | | | | | | | + -1 + ***** + + +Recast Treatment + + + + 2 + | | *** | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | | | | * | | | | | | --- | + -2 + + + + + + + + | | **** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | | + -3 + + + + + + + (0) + |Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Group Gains High gains

Nonrecast +Photo>NonRecast -Photo = Hypothesis 3 Low gain ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Logit| High-gain Participants| Hard Extended Production Tasks | Less Effective | Less Effective | Low-gain Group | Low-gain |Scale| + 4 + + + + + + + (6) + | | | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | | | --- | + 3 + + + + + + + + | | | | | | Control Group | | | | | | | | | | | 5 | | | * | | | | | | | + 2 + + + + + + + + | | *** | | | | | | --- | | | ** | | | | | | | + 1 + ** + + -Recast Treatment + + + + 4 + | | ** | | | | Nonrecast group without Photo | | | | | ****** | | | | Nonrecast group with Photo | | | | | ***** | | | | | | --- | | | ***** | | | | | | | | | ******* | | | Treatment with Photo | | Del. Posttest | | * 0 * ****** * * * * * * 3 * | | *********** | | | Treatment without Photo | | Posttest | | | | ******* | Written description | | | | | | | | *** | Oral desc. with Photo Oral desc. without Photo | | | | | --- | | | ****** | | | | | | | + -1 + ***** + + +Recast Treatment + + + + 2 + | | *** | | | | | | | | | ** | | | | Recast group with Photo | | | | | * | | | | | | --- | + -2 + + + + + + + + | | **** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | Recast group without Photo | | | + -3 + + + + + + + (0) + |Logit| Low-gain Participants |Easy Extended Production Tasks | More Effective | More Effective |High-gain Group | High-gain |Scale| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Group Gains High gains

Appearance of the past progressive Summary Rasch Analysis Appearance of the past progressive Hypothesis 1 Recasts  Hypothesis 2 Recasts ~TC  Hypothesis 3 Task Comp. 

Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment Task +Photo Recast Group (n=18) -Photo Recast Group +Photo Nonrecast Group -Photo Nonrecast Group Control Group Oral Photo Description Tasks 18 18 Recast > Nonrecast ~ Hypothesis 1

Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment Task +Photo Recast Group (n=18) -Photo Recast Group +Photo Nonrecast Group -Photo Nonrecast Group Control Group Oral Photo Description Tasks 18 Earlier production of the target form 18 18 -Photo +Recast > +Photo+Recast ≠ Hypothesis 2

Appearance of the past progressive in participants’ production during the treatment Task +Photo Recast Group (n=18) -Photo Recast Group +Photo Nonrecast Group -Photo Nonrecast Group Control Group Oral Photo Description Tasks 18 +Photo Nonrecast = –Photo Nonrecast ~ Hypothesis 3

Appearance of the past progressive Summary Rasch Analysis Appearance of the past progressive  Hypothesis 1 Recasts  Hypothesis 2 Recasts ~TC   Hypothesis 3 Task Comp.   -

Exit Questionnaire “Was it easier to describe the photos when you could or when you could not see them? 87.9% - + contextual support condition was easier 12.1% - no difference between +/- contextual support conditions “Why?” Not having to “remember” or “memorize” what was in the photo thus being able to “pay greater attention to the details” of the photos and “describe all the activities” on them, “all of which they may not have been able to recall” being better able to “focus on how to describe what [they] saw in English”

Appearance of the past progressive Summary Rasch Analysis Appearance of the past progressive  Hypothesis 1 Recasts  Hypothesis 2 Recasts ~TC   Hypothesis 3 Task Comp.   -

Discussion Learners have displayed greater degree of development in the use of the target form when they received recasts. The findings of the present study are in line with the results of previous recast studies suggesting that recasts may enhance L2 development when provided in a consistent manner to developmentally ready learners.

Appearance of the past progressive Summary Rasch Analysis Appearance of the past progressive  Hypothesis 1 Recasts  Hypothesis 2 Recasts ~TC   Hypothesis 3 Task Comp.   -

Discussion Learners have displayed greater degree of development in the use of the target form when they received recasts in the absence of contextual support. This finding runs counter to the implication of the Cognition Hypothesis that more complex tasks along the resource-dispersing dimensions will lead to less extensive noticing of, and learning induced by, recasts.

Discussion A possible explanation is that both the photos and the provision of recasts provided the learners with external support during task completion, and these two types of external support entered into competition. The availability of the photo probably distracted learners’ attention from the recasts under the +contextual support condition. Why did the learners choose to focus on the photo instead of the recasts under +contextual support condition?

Discussion This may have been an artifact of the monologic nature of the task. It could be speculated that recasts go unnoticed more easily during monologic than interactive task performance since it is less crucial for learners to attend to the interlocutor’s speech during the former. Cognition Hypothesis may need to be refined to accommodate the effects of interactional factors in relation to the noticing of, and subsequent learning induced by, corrective feedback.

Appearance of the past progressive Summary Rasch Analysis Appearance of the past progressive  Hypothesis 1 Recasts  Hypothesis 2 Recasts ~TC   Hypothesis 3 Task Comp.   -

Discussion and Conclusions Learners have displayed greater development in the ability to use the target form when they performed tasks in the presence of contextual support. This finding provides some support for the Cognition Hypothesis which predicts achieving greater control over existing knowledge as a result of performing tasks less complex along the resource-dispersing dimension.

Conclusions The study revealed that recasts can assist learners in gaining control over their L2 knowledge. The study suggests that recasts may be differentially effective depending on the cognitive complexity of the task during which they occur. The study provided some evidence that task complexity may modulate the extent of L2 learning generated by task-based output.

Future Directions Future studies should continue to explore the interaction between task complexity, recasts, and language learning. Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is gaining currency and corrective feedback is attributed a crucial role in TBLT. Future research should continue to explore the interaction between various task-related variables and instructional interventions.

Thank you! Acknowledgments: Dr. ZhaoHong Han, Dr. James Purpura Eun Sung Park, Monika Ekiert, Philip Choong TIRF Foundation, Spencer Foundation Thank you!