Development of the Colonies: 16th and 17th Centuries

Demographic Shifts Brazil - By 1700 1/3 of the population is Portuguese the rest were American born - Very few Portuguese women. - Emigration tied to the sugar and mining booms Mexico/Peru - Attracted the largest number of settlers - Reasons to leave: glory and fortune initially, later more mundane reasons - By 1600, the number of American born Creoles equaled the number of Peninsulares - Populations centered near large urban areas

Ethnic Mixing As creoles/criollos gained greater footholds as leaders, mestizos began to play a more important role enforcing Crown laws and in leadership roles Pardos/mulatos grew in numbers, especially in Brazil. Casta numbers grew exponentially

CASTAS

Castas in Colonial New Spain Peninsulares - Iberian born Spaniards. Criollo - New Spain born Spaniards. Mestizo - Spanish and Indian mix. Negro - African descent. Indian (Indio)

Legal Issues Indians - the tributary laboring caste. Mestizos - intermediate legal category exempt from the tribute required of Indians.

RACIAL DEFINITIONS NOTED BY THE GENERAL CAPTAINCY OF GUATEMALA, 1770. Spanish with Indian produces a Mestizo. Spanish with Mestiza produces a Castizo. Spanish with Castiza reverts to Spanish. From Spanish and Negro comes the Mulato. From Spanish and Mulato comes the Morisco. From Morisco and Spanish, the Albino. From Albino and Spanish the Turnabout [Torno atrás] Mulato and Indian engender the Calpamulato. From the Calpamulato and Indian comes the Jíbaro. * This list actually includes 103 terms and definitions.

RACIAL DEFINITIONS NOTED BY THE GENERAL CAPTAINCY OF GUATEMALA, 1770. From Negro and Indian comes the Lobo. From Lobo and Indian comes the Cambujo. From Indian and Cambuja comes the Sambahigo. From Mulato and Mestiza comes the Cuarterón. From Cuarterón and Mestiza comes the Coyote. From Coyote and Morisca is born the Albarazado. From Albarazado and Salta atrás [elsewhere noted as a cros of Indian with “Chino,” the latter possibly a cross between Spanish and Morisca] comes the Tente en el aire. Source: J. Pérez de Barradas (1948: 184-185)

Of a Spanish man and an Amerindian woman, a Mestizo is produced

Of a Negro man and a Spanish woman, a Mulatto is obtained

From Mestizo man and Amerindian woman, begotten a Coyote

Of a black and an Amerindian, produces a Lobo

Administering the Empire

Problems of time and distance Days from Andalusian port to Days to Andalusian port from Canary Islands 13 Azores 31 Espanola 15 Florida 65 Havana 64 Havana 67 Vera Cruz 75 Vera Cruz 128 Isthmus of Panama 75 Isthmus of Panama 137

Colonial Viceroyalties

Audencias in the Viceroyalty of Peru

Captaincies in Brazil

Make up of clergy Secular: bishops Regular: priests and friars and orders that took an oath of poverty No Indian clergy By early 17th century Creole clergy outnumber Peninsulars, thus anchoring the Church to the social fabric of colonial society.

Mission System Acculturation: * Imposing Christian beliefs * Social practices such as monogamy * Social organization: political and judicial * Prevent Indian resistance and rebellion

Mission map along the Amazon

Jesuit Mission: Society of Jesus Saint Ignacio Loyola - a Knight who became a priest Missionary work devoted to human rights and social justice worked on the frontiers Established as a Counter- Reformation In Latin America, stood between the Crown and the native population Become very powerful and large landholders, essential a threat to the Spanish Crown

Obstacles: Native Languages Dispersed residential patterns outside of urban centers impeded the spread of Christianity However, Christianity resembled at least superficially some native religions. But the destruction of native religions became was systematic.

Virgin of Guadalupe: La Virgen Morena

Juan Diego In 1531 Juan Diego, an Indian was traveling past the hill of Tepeyac on his way to Mass. A brilliant light appeared before him and a dark-skinned woman stood before him and called him “my son.” She declared herself to be the Virgin, the mother of Jesus and wanted Juan Diego to relay a message to Bishop Juan de Zumarraga that she wanted a church built on the hill of Tepeyac. December 12th 1531 Officially recognized in 1745 Churches built: 1531, 1709, 1904, 1976

Tonantzin: Earth Goddess, mother of the gods and protector of humanity

Segregating Indians Augustian and Franciscan orders effectively rounded up natives in the state of Michoacán to build new settlements in the Spanish style using Indian labor. These settlements were influenced by Sir Thomas More’s Utopia Included: plaza, convent, hospital, water supply, and well constructed houses Friars helped to oversee the villages. General Indian Court – Indian Protectors

The Mature Church Secular Clergy: parish priests, bishops, archbishops were responsible for their own financial security which led them to enter into a variety of economic activities (they were officially suppose to refrain from retail or crafts or direct employment outside of the church, many did not observe this Many of the secular clergy have no real interest in converting the populations. This seen as a way to advance one’s position in society.

Regular orders took oaths of poverty and by far were the evangelizing force in the New World. However, many did begin to part-take in economic ventures of landownership and the sale of items. There was a great deal of antagonism between the regular and secular orders.

Most importantly the secular clergy helped to build what would be the economic leviathan that was the Catholic Church in the New World. The Catholic Church became as important as the Crown in governance in the colonies and in economic ventures. The Church became the most important source of mortgages (that usually had a return of 7%) and the major source of investment capital. AND it became the major holder of colonial property.

Parish priest (your secular clergy) often received tithes and fees for performing services such as marriages, communion, baptism. A lucrative way to make a living. This often placed a great burden on native populations as they were expected to pay these fees. Seeing this some regular orders (like the Jesuits) entered into market enterprises operating marketplaces in their missions selling wine, sugar, textiles, pottery etc…

These orders were also important in the education of the New World. The Dominicans and the Jesuits dominated education up until 1750 when the Jesuits were expelled from the colonies. 1551 Dominicans established Lima’s University of San Marcos 1551 University of Mexico

More rifts Peninsular and Creole clerics: growing Creole majority where they jockeyed for positions. Creoles dominated the parish level, but by 1700 there were a growing number of Mestizo priests (seldom were there Indian priests)

Women and the Church Orders (Nuns) for women: Franciscan, Carmelite, and Augustinian An elite order: the Order of the Black Veil were the most educated group of women in the colonies. Nunneries carried with them huge dowries and held lots of money.

Labor Types

Labor Encomienda- reward system that inadvertently created a colonial aristocracy. Utilized caciques to mobilize labor. Resulted in the enslavement of Indians Mita The Problem: Populations did not want to give up their ‘moral economy’ and traditional production to enter free-wage labor in the mines and mills. The Solution: Labor drafts Slavery : two types Indian slavery – killed off too many Indians; outlawed by 1542 by the Crown Those enslave: captives of a ‘just war,’ cannibals, those captured by Bandeirantes (slave raiders in Brazil in the 1600s often raided Jesuits missions to acquire Indian slaves to sell to merchants)

Labor Types, continued African slavery – Preferred type * spurred by mine and sugar production * a preexisting trade that the Europeans tapped into Wage labor – two types Free-wage labor: brought on as serfs were liberated in Europe creating a pool of laborers ready to work. debt peonage – person is indebted and toils in order to repay their debts. They almost never pay off their debts.

Economic development Centered on the Mother country CORE  Periphery Production markets benefit the core and exploit the periphery The core often relied heavily on the its colonies Protecting the transatlantic trade of great importance: American gold silver

Spanish Gold First boom: in the Caribbean then Central America, then Peru and lastly Brazil Spanish Gold boom: conquest to the 1540s 1550: 5 million pesos out of Mexico 10 million pesos out of Peru Hits its height in the 1660s in Spanish America (rise of Pirates)

Brazilian Gold Gold strike in 1690s in Minas Gerais Peaked by the 1750 Provided competition for slaves against the sugar mills in the north driving up slave prices

Gold Mines: Minas Gerais

New Spain and Peru Silver 1530 Mexico City 1546 Zacatecas 1550 Guanjuato 1545 Potosi, Bolivia (the richest)

Potosi, Bolivia

Silver Mining in Potosi

Silver Smelting

Patio Process

Sugar Arrived with Columbus in 1493; transplanted from São Tome Grown in and shipped from Santo Domingo beginning 1516. Africans shipped in to work the cane. By 1526, Brazil is shipping sugar to Lisbon. 1627, the British establish Barbados as a sugar island. After 1650, sugar changed from a luxury and a rarity to commonplace on the table and a national necessity. The most important regions: Pernambuco and Bahia in Brazil. This heightened consumption and production of sugar in the west also coincided with development and the rise of world capitalism. Sugar, molasses, and rum and plantation production.

Flow of colonial sugar production

Engenho Sugar production required rapid handling. Land and slaves were the most expensive components to the engenho and drove up slave importations after the 1570s

Colonial engenho

Puerto Rico Sugar Mill

Colonial Caribbean

Spanish Galleons

Pirates and Privateers

Port Royal and Buccaneers