Anatomy & Physiology Revealed Images Chapter 02 *Lecture and Animation Outline with Anatomy & Physiology Revealed Images To run the animations you must be in Slideshow View. Use the buttons on the animation to play, pause, and turn audio/text on or off. Please Note: Once you have used any of the animation functions (such as Play or Pause), you must first click on the slide’s background before you can advance to the next slide. *See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes and animations. 1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Anatomy & Physiology SBS21QAD Chapter 2 William C. Bryant High School Anatomy & Physiology SBS21QAD Chapter 2 Instructor: Mr. Fuentes Science Content Area

2.1: Introduction Why study chemistry in an Anatomy and Physiology class? - Body functions depend on cellular functions - Cellular functions result from chemical changes - Biochemistry helps to explain physiological processes

2.2: Structure of Matter Matter – anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements. Elements – composed of chemically identical atoms: Bulk elements – required by the body in large amounts Trace elements - required by the body in small amounts Ultratrace elements – required by the body in very minute amounts Atoms – smallest particle of an element

Table 2.1 Some Particles of Matter

Elements and Atoms All matter is composed of elements Elements are: Bulk elements Trace elements Ultratrace elements Elements are composed of atoms of the same type Compounds are composed of atoms of different types that are chemically bonded

Atomic Structure Atoms - composed of subatomic particles: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Atoms - composed of subatomic particles: Proton – carries a single positive charge Neutron – carries no electrical charge Electron – carries a single negative charge Neutron (n0) - Proton (p+) + Electron (e–) + - + Nucleus Central part of atom Composed of protons and neutrons Electrons move around the nucleus Nucleus - Lithium (Li)

Atomic Number and Atomic Weight Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom Each element has a unique atomic number Equals the number of electrons in the atom Atomic Weight Approximated by the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom (since a proton and a neutron each have an approximate atomic weight of one) Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom

Isotopes Isotopes Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with different atomic weights Different numbers of neutrons Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18) Radioactive isotopes are unstable, releasing energy or pieces of themselves (atomic radiation) For an element, the atomic weight is often considered the average of the atomic weights of its isotopes.

2.1 From Science to Technology Radioactive Isotopes Reveal Physiology

2.2 From Science to Technology Ionizing Radiation: From the Cold War to Yucca Mountain

Molecules and Compounds Molecule – particle formed when two or more atoms chemically combine Compound – particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements chemically combine Molecular formulas – depict the elements present and the number of each atom present in the molecule H2 C6H12O6 H2O

Molecules and Compounds Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H H O O O H O H H H H H H O H H H H H O O H O H H O H O O H H O H

Bonding of Atoms Bonds form when atoms combine with other atoms Electrons of an atom occupy regions of space called electron shells which circle the nucleus For atoms with atomic numbers of 18 or less, the following rules apply: The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons The second shell can hold up to 8 electrons The third shell can hold up to 8 electrons

Bonding of Atoms Lower shells are filled first Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. If the outermost shell is full, the atom is stable - - - + + + + - + + - - Hydrogen (H) Helium (He) Lithium (Li)

Ionic Bonds Ionic Bonds An attraction between a cation and an anion Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Na+ Cl– + – 11p+ 17p+ 12n0 18n0 Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl–) Sodium chloride

Bonding of Atoms: Ions Ion Cation Anion An atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable An electrically charged atom Cation A positively charged ion Formed when an atom loses electrons 11p+ 17p+ 12n0 18n0 Anion A negatively charged ion Formed when an atom gains electrons Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)

Covalent Bonds Formed when atoms share electrons H ― H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H2 - - - + + + + - Hydrogen atom + Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule Hydrogen atoms form single bonds Oxygen atoms form two bonds Nitrogen atoms form three bonds Carbon atoms form four bonds H ― H O = O N ≡ N O = C = O

Bonding of Atoms: Structural Formula Structural formulas show how atoms bond and are arranged in various molecules Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H O O O O C O H2 O2 H2O CO2

Bonding of Atoms: Polar Molecules Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds Water is an important polar molecule Slightly negative ends (a) Slightly positive ends

Hydrogen Bonds Hydrogen Bonds A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule Formed between water molecules Important for protein and nucleic acid structure H H O H Hydrogen bonds O H H O H H O H H O H (b)

Chemical Reactions Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or break among atoms, ions, or molecules Reactants are the starting materials of the reaction - the atoms, ions, or molecules Products are substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction NaCl ’ Na+ + Cl- Reactant Products

Types of Chemical Reactions Synthesis Reaction – more complex chemical structure is formed A + B ’ AB Decomposition Reaction – chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure AB ’ A + B Exchange Reaction – chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed AB + CD ’ AD + CB Reversible Reaction – the products can change back to the reactants A + B n AB

Acids, Bases, and Salts Electrolytes – substances that release ions in water NaCl  Na+ + Cl- Acids – electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water HCl  H+ + Cl- Bases – substances that release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions NaOH  Na+ + OH- Salts – electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl

Acids, Bases, and Salts Na+ Cl– Salt crystal Na+ Ions in solution Cl– Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Na+ Cl– Salt crystal Na+ Ions in solution Cl–

Acid and Base Concentration pH scale - indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution Neutral – pH 7; indicates equal concentrations of H+ and OH- Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 8.4 Sodium biocarbonate Relative Amounts of H+ (red) and OH– (blue) Acidic 6.6 cow’s milk 7.4 Human blood H + 5.3 cabbage 4.2 tomato juice 3.0 apple juice 11.5 Household ammonia 2.0 gastric juice 10.5 milk of magnesia 8.0 Egg white 7.0 Distilled water Acidic – pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+ 6.0 corn Basic OH– pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 Acidic H + concentration increases Neutral OH – concentration increases Basic (alkaline) Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7; indicates a greater concentration of OH-

Changes in pH and Buffers Blood pH Normal blood pH is 7.35 – 7.45 Alkalosis occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5 – 7.8 Acidosis occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 – 7.3 Homeostatic mechanisms help regulate pH Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH changes

2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules Organic molecules Contain C and H Usually larger than inorganic molecules Dissolve in water and organic liquids Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids Inorganic molecules Generally do not contain C and H Usually smaller than organic molecules Usually dissociate in water, forming ions Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts

Inorganic Substances Water Most abundant compound in living material Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human Major component of all body fluids Medium for most metabolic reactions Important role in transporting chemicals in the body Absorbs and transports heat Oxygen (O2) Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in order to drive cell’s metabolic activities Necessary for survival

Inorganic Substances Carbon dioxide (CO2) Waste product released during metabolic reactions Must be removed from the body Inorganic salts Abundant in body fluids Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca+2, etc.) Play important roles in metabolism

Organic Substances Carbohydrates Provide energy to cells Supply materials to build cell structures Water-soluble Contain C, H, and O Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6) Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose

Organic Substances Carbohydrates Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H O C H C O H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H O C H H C O H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H C O H C O O H H H C O H H C C O H H O O H H C O H C C H H O H (a) Some glucose molecules (C6H12O6) have a straight chain of carbon atoms. (b) More commonly, glucose molecules form a ring structure. (c) This shape symbolizes the ring structure of a glucose molecule.

Organic Substances Carbohydrates Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. O O O O (a) Monosaccharide (b) Disaccharide Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. O O O (c) Polysaccharide

Organic Substances Lipids Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water Fats (triglycerides) Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6) Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule Saturated fatty acids have only single carbon to carbon bonds Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more carbon to carbon double bond Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H (a) Saturated fatty acid H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H O C C C C C C C C C C C H C H C C C C H H H H H H H H C C H (b) Unsaturated fatty acid H H H H H

Organic Substances Lipids Fats (triglycerides) Saturated fats contain three saturated fatty acids Mostly solid and come from animals Unsaturated fats contain at least one unsaturated fatty acid Mostly liquid and come from plants Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H H H H H H H H H Glycerol portion Fatty acid portions

Organic Substances Lipids Phospholipids Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per molecule Hydrophilic and hydrophobic Major component of cell membranes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H H C O Fatty acid H C O Fatty acid H C O Fatty acid Water-insoluble (hydrophobic) “tail” H C O Fatty acid O H H H H C O Fatty acid H C O P O C C N Water-soluble (hydrophilic) “head” H H O – H H H Glycerol portion Phosphate portion (a) A fat molecule (b) A phospholipid molecule (the unshaded portion may vary) (c) Schematic representation of a phospholipid molecule

Organic Substances Lipids Steroids Four connected rings of carbon Widely distributed in the body, various functions Component of cell membrane Used to synthesize hormones Cholesterol Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. CH CH 3 CH H H 3 2 3 C C CH CH CH CH CH 2 2 2 H C C CH 2 2 CH CH 3 H 3 C 2 HC CH CH H C C 2 CH 2 HO C C C CH H 2 C C H H 2 (a) General structure of a steroid (b) Cholesterol

Organic Substances Proteins Structural material Energy source Hormones Receptors Enzymes Antibodies Protein building blocks are amino acids Amino acids held together with peptide bonds H C H C C H H H C C H S C R H C H H C H H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH H H O H H O H H O

Organic Substances Proteins Four Levels of Protein Structure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Amino acids (a) Primary structure—Each oblong shape in this polypeptide chain represents an amino acid molecule. The whole chain represents a portion of a protein molecule. C C R H N H H C O C H (b) Secondary structure—The polypeptide chain of a protein molecule is often either pleated or twisted to form a coil. Dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds. R groups (see fig. 2.17) are indicated in bold. C O H N H C N R R C H H C H R H O C H N H O C R N C N C O C N H R R R H C C H O R H O C C H H N H H C O C N O C H C N C O R R C H H H N H R H O C C R N C N C H N H O C R C O C R R N H C O H O H C H R H H N H H C C C O N O C C N Pleated structure C O Coiled structure H O C H H H N C (c) Tertiary structure— The pleated and coiled polypeptide chain of a protein molecule folds structure. into a unique three-dimensional folding Three-dimensional (d) Quaternary structure—Two or more polypeptide chains may be connected to form a single protein molecule.

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Organic Substances Nucleic Acids Encode amino acid sequences of proteins Building blocks are nucleotides Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. P B S DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide RNA (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide

Organic Substances Nucleic Acids Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S S P B P B B P S S (a) (b)

2.3 From Science to Technology CT Scanning and PET Imaging

Important Points in Chapter 2: Outcomes to be Assessed 2.1: Introduction Give examples of how the study of living materials requires an understanding of chemistry. 2.2: Structure of Matter Describe the relationships among matter, atoms, and molecules. Describe how atomic structure determines how atoms interact. Explain how molecular and structural formulas symbolize the composition of compounds. Describe three types of chemical reactions. Describe the differences among acids, bases, and buffers. Explain the pH scale.

Important Points in Chapter 2: Outcomes to be Assessed Continued 2.3: Chemical Constituents of Cells List the major groups of inorganic chemicals common in cells and explain the function(s) of each group. Describe the general functions of the main classes of organic molecules in cells.

Quiz 2 Complete Quiz 2 now! Read Chapter 3.