Fig. 54-1

EXPERIMENT High tide Chthamalus Chthamalus Balanus realized niche Fig. 54-3 EXPERIMENT High tide Chthamalus Balanus Chthamalus realized niche Balanus realized niche Ocean Low tide RESULTS High tide Chthamalus fundamental niche Ocean Low tide

Percentages of individuals in each size class Fig. 54-4 G. fuliginosa G. fortis Beak depth 60 Los Hermanos 40 G. fuliginosa, allopatric 20 60 Daphne Percentages of individuals in each size class 40 G. fortis, allopatric 20 60 Santa María, San Cristóbal Sympatric populations 40 20 8 10 12 14 16 Beak depth (mm)

(c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Fig. 54-5 (a) Cryptic coloration Canyon tree frog (b) Aposematic coloration Poison dart frog (c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one. Hawkmoth larva (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatable species mimic each other. Cuckoo bee Green parrot snake Yellow jacket

Fig. 54-6

(a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) Fig. 54-7 (a) Acacia tree and ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) (b) Area cleared by ants at the base of an acacia tree

Fig. 54-8

A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain Fig. 54-11 Quaternary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Tertiary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Secondary consumers Carnivore Carnivore Primary consumers Herbivore Zooplankton Primary producers Plant Phytoplankton A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain

Fig. 54-12 Humans Smaller toothed whales Baleen whales Sperm whales Elephant seals Crab-eater seals Leopard seals Birds Fishes Squids Carnivorous plankton Euphausids (krill) Copepods Phyto- plankton

Sea nettle Juvenile striped bass Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton Fig. 54-13 Sea nettle Juvenile striped bass Fish larvae Fish eggs Zooplankton

EXPERIMENT RESULTS Fig. 54-15 20 15 With Pisaster (control) Number of species present 10 5 Without Pisaster (experimental) 1963 ’64 ’65 ’66 ’67 ’68 ’69 ’70 ’71 ’72 ’73 Year

Otter number (% max. count) Grams per 0.25 m2 Number per 0.25 m2 Fig. 54-16 100 80 Otter number (% max. count) 60 40 20 (a) Sea otter abundance 400 300 Grams per 0.25 m2 200 100 (b) Sea urchin biomass 10 8 Number per 0.25 m2 6 4 2 1972 1985 1989 1993 1997 Year (c) Total kelp density Food chain

Fig. 54-17

Log intensity of disturbance Fig. 54-20 35 30 25 Number of taxa 20 15 10 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 Log intensity of disturbance

Fig. 54-21 (a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

1941 1907 Dryas stage Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 1860 Fig. 54-22-4 1941 1907 2 Dryas stage 1 Pioneer stage, with fireweed dominant 5 10 15 1860 Kilometers Glacier Bay Alaska 1760 4 Spruce stage 3 Alder stage

60 50 40 Soil nitrogen (g/m2) 30 20 10 Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce Fig. 54-23 60 50 40 Soil nitrogen (g/m2) 30 20 10 Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce Successional stage

Fig. 54-24

Fig. 54-27 Immigration Extinction Immigration Extinction Immigration (small island) (near island) Extinction (large island) (far island) Extinction Immigration Rate of immigration or extinction Rate of immigration or extinction (large island) Rate of immigration or extinction (far island) Extinction Immigration (near island) (small island) Equilibrium number Small island Large island Far island Near island Number of species on island Number of species on island Number of species on island (a) Immigration and extinction rates (b) Effect of island size (c) Effect of distance from mainland

Area of island (hectares) Fig. 54-28 400 200 100 50 Number of plant species (log scale) 25 10 5 10 100 103 104 105 106 Area of island (hectares) (log scale)

Fig. 54-30