Intelligence Chapter 8

Chapter Outline Defining intelligence Theoretical perspectives of intelligence Measuring intelligence Effects of heredity and environment on intelligence Developmental trends in IQ scores Group differences in intelligence Critique of current perspectives on intelligence Implications of theories & research on intelligence Exceptionalities in intelligence

Defining Intelligence Researchers agree: intelligence is adaptive it involves learning ability and prior knowledge it involves many mental processes it is culture-specific Text definition: “ability to apply past knowledge and experiences flexibly to accomplish challenging new tasks.”

Theoretical Perspectives Spearman’s g Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities Gardner’s multiple intelligences Sternberg’s triarchic theory Distributed intelligence

Spearman’s g Original theory Contemporary view general and specific factors of intelligence Contemporary view general (g) — ability to process information quickly

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Cattell: fluid vs. crystallized intelligence CHC: three strata Stratum III — general intelligence Stratum II — 10 broad abilities (including fluid and crystallized) Stratum I — 70 to 100 very specific abilities

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist Bodily-Kinesthetic Existential Others?

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Three domains analytical creative practical Three factors environmental context prior experience cognitive processes

Distributed Intelligence Intelligent behavior depends on physical mechanisms using tools & technology social mechanisms working with others cultural support mechanisms language, artifacts

Measuring Intelligence Tests of general intelligence Specific ability tests Dynamic assessments Developmental assessments

Tests of General Intelligence Binet’s test general knowledge vocabulary perception memory abstract thought Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test

IQ Scores Originally: Mental age/chronological age x 100 Contemporary: Comparison of person’s performance on test with performance of same-age people Average = 100 IQ tests must be valid and reliable.

Specific Ability Tests Aptitude tests Memory for auditory information Ability to think and reason about spatial relations Consistent with multidimensional view of intelligence High reliability, reasonable degree of validity

Dynamic Assessment Focused on children’s ability to learn in new situations Assess benefits of adult guidance

Developmental Assessments Identify significant developmental delays tests for infants and toddlers Apgar Scale, Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, Bayley Scales of Infant Development tests for preschoolers Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, school readiness tests

Heredity and Environment Twin studies monozygotic vs. dizygotic Adoption studies adoptive vs. biological parents and sibs Other environmental factors nutrition toxic substances home environment & early intervention programs formal schooling Flynn effect steady increase in average IQ score throughout industrialized world

Nature and Nurture Interact Heredity establishes a range Genetic expression is influenced by environmental conditions Children choose environments and experiences

Developmental Trends IQ scores become increasingly stable IQ scores become increasingly accurate predictors of future academic achievement

Group Differences Gender differences Socioeconomic differences males = females on tests of general intelligence small differences in some specific cognitive abilities verbal, visuo-spatial, mathematical Socioeconomic differences children from lower income families have somewhat lower measured intelligence poverty is greatest risk Ethnic and racial differences appear in preschool years, persist through adolescence possible reasons: cultural bias, socioeconomic status, discriminatory practices, motivation

Critique of Current Perspectives Research has relied too heavily on traditional intelligence tests. IQ scores are too often interpreted out of context. Assessment of intelligence focuses almost exclusively on skills valued in mainstream Western cultures. Intelligence tests overlook dispositions & metacognitive strategies that are important contributors to intellectual functioning. Many theorists have placed higher priority on assessing current intelligence than on developing future intelligence.

Implications Maintain a healthy skepticism about IQ scores. Support early intervention programs in the community. Cultivate intellectual abilities throughout the school years. Be open-minded about how children demonstrate intelligence. Capitalize on children’s individual strengths & abilities. Consider specific cognitive abilities required in classroom lessons. Promote “intelligent” cognitive strategies. Give children support to think more intelligently.

Exceptionalities in Intelligence Giftedness unusually high ability in one or more areas children require special educational services to help them meet their full potential Typical characteristics of children who are gifted process information quickly remember it easily more advanced reasoning and metacognitive skills use more effective learning and problem-solving strategies

Fostering Development Individualize instruction in accordance with students’ specific talents. Form study groups of gifted students who have similar abilities and interests. Teach complex cognitive skills within the context of specific school topics. Provide opportunities for independent study. Encourage students to set high goals, not perfection. Seek outside resources.

Intellectual Disabilities Below-average general intelligence Deficits in adaptive behavior practical intelligence daily living skills social intelligence conduct in social situations

Exceptionalities in Intelligence Maximizing the development of children and adolescents with mental retardation Encourage infants to use strengths; offer opportunities and support for acquiring new knowledge & skills. Introduce new material at slow pace; provide many opportunities for practice. Explain tasks concretely & in very specific language. Give explicit guidance about how to study. Give feedback about specific behaviors rather than general areas of performance. Encourage independence.

Take-Home Messages Theorists do not agree on the definition or components of intelligence. Most agree that intelligence involves effective learning processes and adaptive behaviors. Most intelligence tests are designed to identify individuals with special needs (e.g., are gifted, have an intellectual disability). Contemporary tests include tasks to assess what people have learned and deduced from everyday experiences. Performance is usually summarized by IQ scores. Twin and adoption studies suggest that intelligence may be partly an inherited characteristic, but environmental conditions also have a significant impact on IQ scores. IQ scores may vary based on socioeconomic status or ethnicity; few gender differences are found. Educators should be wary of test bias and should remain optimistic about every child’s potential for intellectual growth.