Fig. 21-1 Figure 21.1 What genomic information makes a human or chimpanzee?

Cytogenetic map Chromosome bands Genes located by FISH Linkage mapping Fig. 21-2-4 Cytogenetic map Chromosome bands Genes located by FISH 1 Linkage mapping Genetic markers 2 Physical mapping Figure 21.2 Three-stage approach to sequencing an entire genome Overlapping fragments 3 DNA sequencing

fragments short enough for sequencing Fig. 21-3-3 1 Cut the DNA into overlapping fragments short enough for sequencing 2 Clone the fragments in plasmid or phage vectors. 3 Sequence each fragment. Figure 21.3 Whole-genome shotgun approach to sequencing 4 Order the sequences into one overall sequence with computer software.

Fig. 21-4 Figure 21.4 Bioinformatics tools available on the Internet

Fig. 21-5 Figure 21.5 The systems biology approach to protein interactions Proteins

Fig. 21-6 Figure 21.6 A human gene microarray chip

Table 21-1 Table 21.1

Repetitive DNA that includes transposable elements and related Fig. 21-7 Exons (regions of genes coding for protein or giving rise to rRNA or tRNA) (1.5%) Repetitive DNA that includes transposable elements and related sequences (44%) Introns and regulatory sequences (24%) Unique noncoding DNA (15%) L1 sequences (17%) Figure 21.7 Types of DNA sequences in the human genome Repetitive DNA unrelated to transposable elements (15%) Alu elements (10%) Simple sequence DNA (3%) Large-segment duplications (5–6%)

Fig. 21-8 Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

Fig. 21-8a Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

Fig. 21-8b Figure 21.8 The effect of transposable elements on corn kernel color

Transposon is copied New copy of retrotransposon Reverse transcriptase Fig. 21-9 New copy of transposon Transposon DNA of genome Transposon is copied Insertion Mobile transposon (a) Transposon movement (“copy-and-paste” mechanism) New copy of retrotransposon Retrotransposon Figure 21.9 Movement of eukaryotic transposable elements RNA Insertion Reverse transcriptase (b) Retrotransposon movement

Fig. 21-10 Figure 21.10 Gene families DNA RNA transcripts Heme -Globin Nontranscribed spacer Hemoglobin Transcription unit -Globin -Globin gene family -Globin gene family DNA Chromosome 16 Chromosome 11 18S 5.8S 28S rRNA   2 1 2 1  G  A    Figure 21.10 Gene families 5.8S 28S Fetus and adult Embryo Embryo Fetus Adult 18S (a) Part of the ribosomal RNA gene family (b) The human -globin and -globin gene families

Blocks of similar sequences in four mouse chromosomes: Fig. 21-11 Human chromosome 16 Blocks of DNA sequence Blocks of similar sequences in four mouse chromosomes: 7 8 16 17 Figure 21.11 Similar blocks of sequences on human and mouse chromosomes

Transposable element Gene Nonsister chromatids Crossover Fig. 21-12 Transposable element Gene Nonsister chromatids Crossover Incorrect pairing of two homologs during meiosis Figure 21.12 Gene duplication due to unequal crossing over and

different chromosomes Evolutionary time Fig. 21-13 Ancestral globin gene Duplication of ancestral gene Mutation in both copies   Transposition to different chromosomes Evolutionary time   Further duplications and mutations      Figure 21.13 A model for the evolution of the human α-globin and β-globin gene families from a single ancestral globin gene   2 1   G 2 A  1   -Globin gene family on chromosome 16 -Globin gene family on chromosome 11

Table 21-2 Table 21.2

factor gene with multiple EGF exons (green) Exon shuffling Exon Fig. 21-14 Epidermal growth factor gene with multiple EGF exons (green) Exon shuffling Exon duplication Fibronectin gene with multiple “finger” exons (orange) Figure 21.14 Evolution of a new gene by exon shuffling Exon shuffling Plasminogen gene with a “kringle” exon (blue) Portions of ancestral genes TPA gene as it exists today

Bacteria Most recent common ancestor of all living things Eukarya Fig. 21-15 Bacteria Most recent common ancestor of all living things Eukarya Archaea 4 3 2 1 Billions of years ago Chimpanzee Figure 21.15 Evolutionary relationships of the three domains of life Human Mouse 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Millions of years ago

Adult fruit fly Fruit fly embryo (10 hours) Fly chromosome Mouse Fig. 21-17 Adult fruit fly Fruit fly embryo (10 hours) Fly chromosome Mouse chromosomes Figure 21.17 Conservation of homeotic genes in a fruit fly and a mouse Mouse embryo (12 days) Adult mouse

Genital segments Thorax Abdomen Thorax Abdomen Fig. 21-18 Figure 21.18 Effect of differences in Hox gene expression during development in crustaceans and insects

Lower than in prokaryotes (Within eukaryotes, lower Fig. 21-UN1 Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Genome size Most are 10–4,000 Mb, but a few are much larger Most are 1–6 Mb Number of genes 1,500–7,500 5,000–40,000 Gene density Lower than in prokaryotes (Within eukaryotes, lower density is correlated with larger genomes.) Higher than in eukaryotes Introns None in protein-coding genes Present in some genes Unicellular eukaryotes: present, but prevalent only in some species Multicellular eukaryotes: present in most genes Other noncoding DNA Can be large amounts; generally more repetitive noncoding DNA in multicellular eukaryotes Very little

Fig. 21-UN2

Fig. 21-UN3

You should now be able to: Explain how linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing each contributed to the Human Genome Project Define and compare the fields of proteomics and genomics Describe the surprising findings of the Human Genome Project with respect to the size of the human genome Distinguish between transposons and retrotransposons

Explain how polyploidy may facilitate gene evolution Describe in general terms the events that may have led to evolution of the globin superfamily Explain the significance of the rapid evolution of the FOXP2 gene in the human lineage Provide evidence that suggests that the homeobox DNA sequence evolved very early in the history of life