What is Science? Part I

By the end of the class, you should be able to discuss… Introduction: Scientific Method & Discovery Definitions: science, research, biological research Is science truth? Approaches to knowledge Important aspects of doing science: assumptions, limitations, and empirical observation Why is science important?

* The Scientific Method Background & Observations Hypothesis Question Experimentation Hypothesis

Core/Basis of Science is Research

Is this what research is like? “Research is exciting, invigorating, and fulfilling work. It is also depressing, annoying, difficult, exasperating work.” K. Michael Foos Why would anyone want to do research?

Science is like a jigsaw puzzle… We’ll talk more about this in class

Is the scientific method the prescribed route to success? In other words… how are discoveries made?

Making Discoveries… “Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” Albert Szent-Gyorgyi “But it can also involve noticing what everybody has seen but nobody has noticed. Discovery requires that we pay close attention.” Hattan & Ploufe

Guidelines are useful but there is more to discovery “We make scientific progress in unpredictable and multifaceted ways.” “An observation, previous information, accumulated experience, or older theories could spark a new explanation or hypothesis.” Valiela Science involves analytical and imaginative thought, although the first is easier to define and is a hallmark and requirement of science.

Definitions Share your definitions in your group: Science Research Biological research

* Definitions “Biology is the science of life on earth.” Ambrose & Ambrose, 5th ed “The biological sciences deal with living things, their component parts, and the interactions between organisms.” Lee Research is investigating information: library, computer, field, lab. Note: not all information gathering is discovery!

Question What criteria would you use to evaluate if something was biological research?

Scenario 1 Jeff is using a technique from physics to evaluate the fluidity of different mixtures of phospholipids that can be found in cellular membranes. Biological research? - Yes - No - Depends

Scenario 2 As evidence in a criminal investigation, Beth is using PCR, a technique that can assess the DNA of organisms, to determine what microbes are found in a stab wound. She will use this information to try to identify where the knife came from.

Scenario 3 Kaneisha is evaluating two new drugs, developed to treat patients with Crohn’s Disease, to determine if they are as effective as the one currently on the market.

* Biological Research Generates new information that advances the field of biology

* Clinical Research For our purposes define as either: Experimental manipulation of human subjects Case reports, case studies, or meta-analyses on animals or humans

Psychological Research * Psychological Research For our purposes, avoid unless clear biological endpoints Consider: how people feel, opinions, beliefs measurement of bp or serum glucose

Try scenarios again…

* Science “Science is the investigation of rational concepts capable of being tested by observation and experimentation.” Ambrose & Ambrose, 5th ed “Science is a process – a way of thinking about problems and a methodology for solving problems. Scientists use… observation, experimentation, and both inductive and deductive logic.” Ambrose et al, 6th ed

* Science “Science is the acquisition of reliable but not infallible knowledge of the real world, including explanations of phenomena.” Strahler

Is science about finding the truth? “Many students in the sciences (to say nothing of other fields) believe that the business of science is truth and that, in science, truth is based on fact. ...” Hatton & Plouffe

Is science about finding the truth? “… But science has to do with understanding nature, not with fixed truths. This understanding is expressed in the form of theories.” “In building up its picture – its explanation – of nature, however, science always moves from the known to the unknown.” Hatton & Plouffe

Is science about finding the truth? “The danger of [the] misconception about proof is that the general public grows to view science as a collection of facts, rather than as a process. When a proven scientific hypothesis is rejected, people grow to distrust science .” Ambrose et al.

Is science about finding the truth? “All science progresses by the rejection of hypotheses. There is no such thing as proof.” Ambrose et al. What good is science if we can’t prove anything?

Approaches to Knowledge “Knowledge comes in many forms, though, and science is only one approach to its acquisition.” Lee Science Humanities - qualitative study human affairs 3. Mathematics - not nec. based real-world phenomena 4. Belief fields - religion, ethics, morality, and political ideology -faith, morality, not based on physical

Science is Empirical “[Science] relies on observation and experience. Value judgments are not scientifically measurable.” Lee “Research at first may be guided by what the scientist’s intuition suggests is the proper direction to take. Eventually, however, the scientist strives to be guided by what direct observation and experimentation reveal to be true.” Shaughnessy, Zechmeister and Zechmeister

* Science is Empirical Testability/Empirical verification Operational definitions Controlled observation

Assumptions vs Limitations of Science

Assumptions Real world Accurately perceive Experimental observations sufficient to explain natural phenomena Principle of uniformity

Limitations Our senses & technology Biased or inaccurate perceptions - For example, it has been said that we "see" with our minds, not with our our eyes despite the common notion that we see things "objectively". Many variables and alternatives Not absolute - contingent upon evaluation of evidence - subject to modification

Is science reliable? “…despite the inherent tentativeness or uncertainty of scientific explanations… scientific knowledge is the most reliable knowledge we can have about the NATURAL world and how it works.” Nichols

Homework Read as assigned in syllabus. Once complete: Answer questions in Exercise #2 (Anfinsen) List 2-3 bullet points to answer the question: Why do you think science does not have conclusive answers after so many years of cell phone use? Review the links related to “Misconceptions about Evolution” as indicated on the next slide. See the last 5 slides Review and be prepared to discuss Applied vs. Basic Research next class

Misconceptions about Evolution Read the following webpage: http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/science_religion Go to the following site (http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/misconceptions_faq.php) ; be prepared for discussion by reviewing the material at the links marked below.

is science important? Share your reason why science is important. Discussion: each group share then select your favorite for each bullet Share your reason why science is important. Did you think the review was censorship or peer review? Why? Open Access: consider pros and cons

Applied vs. Basic Research To review for next class Applied vs. Basic Research What is applied and basic research? At the extremes: Applied: uses existing info to develop techniques or prdts Basic: solely for gaining new info Note: both are based on previous info

Applied vs. Basic Research To review for next class Applied vs. Basic Research “There is still a remnant prejudice… that the basic aspects are more demanding, or somehow more meritorious… Such attitudes ignore the history of science…Distinctions between basic and applied science are therefore more blurred and more damaging than we might think. Creative applied science dovetails with, and stimulates basic science, since it both applies general principles and provides new questions and tests of basic principles. Moreover, if science is to maintain the public support essential for sustaining institutions that support science … it needs to make evident how it helps solve important applied problems.” Valiela

Applied vs. Basic Research To review for next class Applied vs. Basic Research “Politicians and others sometimes suggest that all of our scientific research should be directed at solving important problems rather than satisfying scientific curiosity. Most scientists disagree… The problem is that no one can predict which research areas will lead to useful applications…. Early in the nineteenth century, for example, few people could see any practical use for electricity” Lee

Applied vs. Basic Research To review for next class Applied vs. Basic Research “It has been said that scientific research of a basic nature is concerned primarily with description and explanation, while applied research focuses on prediction and control.” Valiela “Basic research (sometimes called pure science) is driven by the curiosity of the scientist, who simply wants to learn more about a particular phenomenon. Applied research, on the other hand, is done to solve a specific problem and often leads to new or improved technology, which is the practical application of scientific knowledge.” Lee

Applied vs. Basic Research To review for next class Applied vs. Basic Research “Basic and applied research are intertwined… Whole scientific disciplines are organized around applied research [e.g. engineering, agronomy…]” Lee