Research in Psychology Module One: Booklet # 3

Research in Psychology Research is done in order to answer a question In order to have credibility, research must follow certain standards http://psychology.about.com/video/First-Steps-for-Psychology-Research.htm (3:31)

Research should: Follow the scientific method Have a specific hypothesis or question that it is trying to answer Gather data Use a representative sample Be able to be reproduced with similar results

Before Starting Before starting, researchers must have a question that they want answered Next, must decide how to collect information about their question

Decide on their sample Sample: Since it is usually impossible to sample everybody, a sample is a relatively small group out of the total population under study A sample must be representative of the population being studied Can be a random sample Like drawing names Can be a stratified sample where subgroups in the population are presented proportionally Like choosing 40% males and 60% females if that is what the population being studied looks like

METHODS OF RESEARCH There are a variety of methods in which to attempt to answer a question, below are a few: They can be divided into Quantitative research strategies (data can be measured) Uses numbers and statistics Ex: experiments Qualitative research strategies(data can be observed not measured) Includes interviews and observations

Observation The psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering The researcher should be as unobtrusive as possible (ex. Sitting in a corner so does not change outcome of experiment)

Case Study Intensive investigation of one or more participants By itself it cannot be used to prove anything and cannot be generalized to other people May provide lots of material that can be used to created new hypothesis

Survey Information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions Usually a quick way to get a large amount of data from a large population

Correlations Used to examine the relationship (or correlation) between two sets of data Correlation The measure of a relationship between two variables

Positive correlation means that as one variable increases, so does the other Ex: Temperature climb = slupree sales increase Negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other decreases Ex: When temperature rises = amount of clothing worn decreases A correlation describes a relationship, it does not mean that one variable cause the other

Experiments Allows the researcher to control for certain variables (conditions and behaviours in a study that are subject to change) Allows the researcher to draw conclusions

ETHICAL CONSIDERTIONS IN RESEARCH Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. Psychologists have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. Although three are many experiments that could be done to reveal interesting and sometimes relevant information, it is important that all experiments be ethical The American Psychological Association has published a set of guiding principles for ethical research https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LffbSjkiK0E (9:20  7 rules)

Including: Plan research so as to minimize the possibility of misleading results and to protect the welfare and confidentiality of all participants Protect the dignity and welfare of participants Obey all laws Before research must reach an agreement regarding the rights and responsibilities of both participants (researcher & subject) Obtain a signed consent form Cannot use deception if it might influence participant's willingness top participate

WHAT DO YOU THINK??? WHY DONE?: To illustrate people's reluctance to confront those who abuse power

The Milgram Experiment (1963) Participants were told to push a button to administer shocks to a subject (really an actor) for each wrong answer they made With each wrong answer, the voltage would increase until the subject (actor) was screaming in pain and begging for them to stop There really was no shocks but the participants didn’t know that!!!

Researchers wanted to see if they would continue to inflict pain if ordered More than half administered the highest level of shock Results implied that ordinary individuals could easily inflict pain on others if such orders were issued by a respected authority

The Monster Study (1939) Children in an orphanage were divided Half got positive reinforcement about their speaking abilities Half were berated and for every speech imperfection and were told they were stutterers Many of the children form the latter group suffered negative psychological effects 

Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) An experiment to study the behaviour of individuals when placed as either prisoner or guards “Guards” were dressed like guards and had glasses on to conceal their eyes “Prisoners” wore short night shirts and assigned a number

It became so realistic that they had to stop the experiment early (due to “guards” becoming abusive )

Little Albert Experiment (1920) Watson wanted to test whether fear was innate or conditioned Let Little Albert play with random things (white rat, white rabbit, burning newspaper...) After 2 months of paly (and Little Albert not minding the rat) every time Little Albert played with the rat a loud noise would sound behind him

After a while, any time Little Albert saw anything white of fluffy he would get very distressed (including Santa Claus!) The orphan (Little Albert) left before he could get desensitized

Ethical Considerations in Research: If the study involves any of the following, due consideration should be made about (1) whether to conduct the study, (2) how best to protect the participants’ rights. • Psychological or physical discomfort. • Invasion of privacy. If you are researching on private property, such as a shopping mall, you should seek permission. • Deception about the nature of the study or the participants’ role in it. Unless you are observing public behavior, participants should be volunteers and told what your research is about. If possible obtain informed consent. You should only withhold information if the research cannot be carried out any other way. • Research with children. In a school you will need the head teacher's consent and, if (s)he thinks it is advisable, the written consent of the children's’ parents/guardians. Testing children in a lab requires the written consent of parents/guardians. • Research with non-human animals. Experimentation with animals should only rarely be attempted. You must be trained to handle and care for the animals and ensure that their needs are met (food, water, good housing, exercise, gentle handling and protection from disturbance). Naturalistic observation poses fewer problems but still needs careful consideration; the animals may be disturbed especially where they are breeding or caring for young.

When conducting investigations, never: • Insult, offend or anger participants. • Make participants believe they may have harmed or upset someone else. • Break the law or encourage others to do it. • Contravene the Data Protection Act. • Copy tests or materials without permission of the copyright holder. • Make up data. • Copy other people’s work without crediting it. • Claim that somebody else’s wording is you own. Infringement of any ethical guidelines may result in disqualification of the project.

Ethics in research -today!(1:51) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wlm3FBV zTEM

Statistics, Tests and Measurement http://education- portal.com/academy/lesson/intro-to- statistics-tests-and- measurement.html#lesson (4:51)