Theories of Science

Learning Objectives Today we will be looking at : The Enlightenment Falsification Rationalism vs Relativism Social Construction of science Paradigms Atheism New Age

What do you already know about the Enlightenment? Where? Who? When? Why? What? How?

The Enlightenment Period in the 18th Century Emergence of scientific rationalism Critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals It was during the Enlightenment that humans crossed the ‘Great Divide’ and moved from ignorance, guesswork and faith to certainty and truth Bilton (2002)

What is science? Knowledge is based on empirical evidence Scientists ignore personal feelings Remains objective at all times Rational & logical thinking Observations, theories & hypotheses must be testable

“so far the theory has not been shown to be false!” Falsification Karl Popper (1959) We can never be 100% certain that a theory is true “so far the theory has not been shown to be false!”

Falsification The ‘Big Bang’ theory Many scientists accept this theory Supported by lots of observational data BUT there might be evidence that is yet to be discovered This could disprove or falsify the theory

Falsification Popper (1959) If you attempt to disprove a theory, and it withstands all tests = accepted! But can never be finally proven

Rationalism Before science, there were too many conflicting beliefs for them all to be true Religion has no claim on truth at all = science & religion in conflict!

Relativism Science shouldn’t be given special status Science = certain knowledge about world Religion = moral guidance about world Science is just 1 of many beliefs All are equally valid

Relativism Closely linked to postmodernism There are many beliefs in society; science is just 1 of them! Science has no more claim on truth than any other belief Scientists are human beings too… Possible for them to be 100% objective!? They have their own personal views & feelings If cant be 100% objective = main requirement of scientific method of acquiring knowledge

Rationalism vs. Relativism Objective nature of science sets it above all other forms of knowledge Science & Religion are 2 separate realms; non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA) Gellner (1974) Gould, you’re only trying to please powerful religious groups! Gould (1999) Dawkins (2006)

Social Construction of science Kuhn (1962) Challenged the traditional view of science Scientists work in communities centred on particular branches of science / research projects Science is socially constructed within scientific communities

Social Construction of Science Scientists work in a shared paradigm A paradigm is a framework within which scientists work What kind of theories should be developed What kinds of data should be collected Which research methods are acceptable

Paradigm Science is quite a closed system of ideas Science rejects evidence that challenges its claims Science eventually creates new paradigms

Can we see how science could actually be subjective? Tend to look for data which supports their paradigm Paradigm shapes the way you see the world

The growth of scientific explanations will cause religion to disappear Problems for Religion These scientific ideas create problems for religion Existence of God cannot be proved! Religious belief relies on faith (subjective) not scientific evidence (objective) The growth of scientific explanations will cause religion to disappear Frazer (1890)

Disappearance of Religion? NO! Science : has not replaced religion cannot tell us how to live our lives does not tell us about values, hopes, fears, aspirations, anxieties

USA The most religious of the advanced industrial democracies American scientists = leaders in world of discovery However, many Americans still reject science in favour of Bible Creationism _____________? Evolution theory

Natural Selection Scientific evidence supporting Darwin’s theory of evolution, rather than divine intervention Crick & Watson (1953) discovered the double-helix structure of DNA Revealing the process of natural selection

Atheism & Science Can you see why there may be a link between atheism and science?

Atheism & Science Agnostics = doubtful / sceptical about existence of God because of lack of empirical evidence Staunch atheists = arguments for God are illogical No factual basis for religious claims

Spirituality vs. Religion People are now describing themselves as ‘spiritual’ rather than ‘religious’ New Age Individual discovering the divine within themselves Unstructured & diverse range of beliefs Based on fundamental sacred principles of traditional religions (Hinduism, Judaism)

New Age

New Age 3% of population Tarot Astrology Yoga Reflexology Paganism Holistic milieu = wide variety of beliefs & practices that make up the New Age Tarot Astrology Yoga Reflexology Paganism Witchcraft Heelas & Woodhead (2005) 3% of population

New Age and Science Rejection of science Bruce (1995) Rejection of science They favour subjectivity over objectivity They think personal evidence can be a basis for knowledge No scientific evidence for their therapies & techniques = reveals limitations of science

New Age and Science Rejection of organised religion It’s too authoritarian It’s too traditional It lacks a spiritual intensity

New Age and Science Interest in ecology They are very green They respect the Earth as a living organism Important to live in harmony with nature

New Age and Science Scepticism of professional expertise They use alternative therapies Important to treat client holistically (focusing not only on body, but also mind & spirit) Think doctors are narrow-minded

Learning Outcomes Today we have looked at : The Enlightenment Falsification Rationalism vs Relativism Social Construction of science Paradigms Atheism New Age

Worksheet Fill out the Key Word worksheet to check your understanding of the important terms Use these ‘buzzwords’ in the exam!!

Exam Question Identify and briefly explain 1 reason why science cannot replace religion. 3 marks 5 minutes

Homework Identify and briefly explain 2 reasons why people may join New Age movements. 6 marks 9 minutes