An African ant-mimicking membracid bug. (After Boulard 1968.)

Figure 14.1 The basic spectrum of prey defense strategies and predator foraging, varying according to costs and benefits in both time and energy. (After Malcolm 1990.)

Figure 14.2 Pale and melanic (carbonaria) morphs of the peppered moth Biston betularia (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) resting on (a) pale, lichen-covered and (b) dark trunks.

Figure 14.3 A leaf-mimicking katydid, Mimetica mortuifolia (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), in which the fore wing resembles a leaf even to the extent of leaf-like venation and spots resembling fungal mottling. (After Belwood 1990.)

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Figure 14.4 The eyed hawkmoth, Smerinthus ocellatus (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae). (a) The brownish fore wings cover the hind wings of a resting moth. (b) When the moth is disturbed, the black and blue eyespots on the hind wings are revealed. (After Stanek 1977.)

Figure 14.5 The distasteful and warningly colored caterpillars of the cinnabar moth, Tyria jacobaeae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), on ragwort, Senecio jacobaeae. (After Blaney 1976.)

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Figure 14.6 A caterpillar of the orchard butterfly, Papilio aegeus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), with the osmeterium everted behind its head. Eversion of this glistening, bifid organ occurs when the larva is disturbed and is accompanied by a pungent smell.

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Figure 14.7 An aggregation of sawfly larvae (Hymenoptera: Pergidae: Perga) on a eucalypt leaf. When disturbed, the larvae bend their abdomens in the air and exude droplets of sequestered eucalypt oil from their mouths.

Figure 14.8 Three nymphalid butterflies that are Müllerian co-mimics in Florida: (a) the monarch or wanderer (Danaus plexippus); (b) the queen (Danaus gilippus); (c) the viceroy (Limenitis archippus). (After Brower 1958.)

Figure 14.9 Nest guarding by the European ant Camponotus (Colobopsis) truncates (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): a minor worker approaching a soldier that is blocking a nest entrance with her plug-shaped head. (After Hölldobler & Wilson 1990; from Szabó-Patay 1928.)

Figure 14.10 Defense by mandible snapping in termite soldiers (Blattodea: Termitoidae). (a) Head of a symmetric snapping soldier of Termes in which the long thin mandibles are pressed hard together (1) and thus bent inwards (2) before they slide violently across one another (3). (b) Head of an asymmetric snapping soldier of Homallotermes in which force is generated in the flexible left mandible by being pushed against the right one (1) until the right mandible slips under the left one to strike a violent blow (2). (After Deligne et al. 1981.)

Figure 14.11 Diagram of the major components of the venom apparatus of a social aculeate wasp. (After Hermann & Blum 1981.)

Figure 14.12 Three ant mimics: (a) a fly (Diptera: Micropezidae: Badisis); (b) a bug (Hemiptera: Miridae: Phylinae); (c) a spider (Araneae: Clubionidae: Sphecotypus). ((a) After McAlpine 1990; (b) after Atkins 1980; (c) after Oliveira 1988.)