Physico-chemical environment Figure 1 Physico-chemical environment Biome/region Ecosystems/landscape Communities/vegetation Functional types Individual species

Environmental change drivers: Figure 2 Environmental change drivers: Vegetation Community Plant species Resources/ climate Permafrost Consumers/ Disturbance

Process rate Temperature/ Position in range Figure 3 Intensity of competition/ Influence of ‘invasive’ species A B C D Process rate North Temperature/ Position in range South

TIME-SCALE OF RESPONSE Figure 4 Longest experimental studies migration and invasion disturbance regime Other  herbivores SOM development  litter mass, quality Soils  microbes, fauna N availability  species w/in initial community allocation Vegetation Leaf Ps, Rs 1 day 1 yr 10 yr 100 yr 1000 yr TIME-SCALE OF RESPONSE

Figure 5