CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, THEIR CAUSES, AND SUSTAINABILITY

Environmental Science Is a Study of Connections in Nature Everything around us; biotic and abiotic “The environment is everything that isn’t me.“ Environmental science: interdisciplinary science connecting information and ideas from Natural sciences: ecology, biology, geology, chemistry… Social sciences: geography, politics, economics Humanities: ethics, philosophy

Environmental Science Is a Study of Connections in Nature (cont.) How nature works How the environment affects us How we affect the environment How to deal with environmental problems How to live more sustainably

Nature’s Survival Strategies Follow Three Principles of Sustainability Reliance on solar energy The sun provides warmth and fuels photosynthesis Biodiversity Astounding variety and adaptability of natural systems and species Chemical cycling Circulation of chemicals from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment Also called nutrient cycling

Three Principles of Sustainability Figure 1.3: Three principles of sustainability. We derive these three interconnected principles of sustainability from learning how nature has sustained a huge variety of life on the earth for at least 3.5 billion years, despite drastic changes in environmental conditions (Concept 1-1a).

Sustainability Has Certain Key Components Natural capital: supported by solar capital; includes: Natural resources: useful materials and energy in nature Natural services: important nature processes such as renewal of air, water, and soil Human activities tend to degrade natural capital Scientific and social solutions needed for environmental sustainability

Natural Capital Degradation Figure 1.6: Natural capital degradation. This was once a large area of diverse tropical rain forest in Brazil, but it has now been cleared to grow soybeans. According to ecologist Harold Mooney of Stanford University, conservative estimates suggest that between 1992 and 2008, an area of tropical rain forest larger than the U.S. state of California was destroyed in order to graze cattle and plant crops for food and biofuels. Mongabay, Peru; satellite images

Some Sources Are Renewable and Some Are Not Resource Anything we obtain from the environment to meet our needs Some directly available for use: sunlight Some not directly available for use: petroleum Perpetual resource Solar energy

Some Sources Are Renewable and Some Are Not, cont. Renewable resource Several days to several hundred years to renew E.g., forests, grasslands, fresh air, fertile soil Sustainable yield Highest rate at which we can use a renewable resource without reducing available supply 9

Some Sources Are Renewable and Some Are Not, cont. Nonrenewable resources Energy resources (Fossil Fuels) Metallic mineral resources Nonmetallic mineral resources Reduce – the amount we need Reuse – as much as we can of the amount we have used before Recycle – all of the resources that can be reused in some way

Countries Differ in Levels of Unsustainability Economic growth: increase in output of a nation’s goods and services Gross domestic product (GDP): annual market value of all goods and services produced by all businesses, foreign and domestic, operating within a country Per capita GDP: one measure of economic development

Countries Differ in Levels of Unsustainability, cont. Economic development: using economic growth to raise living standards More-developed countries: North America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, most of Europe Less-developed countries: most countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America

Countries by Gross National Income per Capita Equator Figure 2 This map shows high-income, upper-middle income, lower-middle-income, and low-income countries in terms of gross national income (GNI) PPP per capita (U.S. dollars) in 2008. (Data from World Bank and International Monetary Fund) Supplement 8, Fig 2

We Are Living Unsustainably Environmental degradation: wasting, depleting, and degrading the earth’s natural capital Happening at an accelerating rate Also called natural capital degradation

Pollution Comes from a Number of Sources Sources of pollution Point sources E.g., smokestack Nonpoint sources E.g., pesticides blown into the air Main type of pollutants Biodegradable Nondegradable MOST COMMON WAYS TO DEAL WITH POLLUTION Pollution cleanup (output pollution control) Pollution prevention (input pollution control)

Point-Source Air Pollution Figure 1.10: This point-source air pollution rises from a pulp mill in New York State (USA). Fig. 1-10, p. 14

Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Figure 1.11: The trash in this river came from a large area of land and is an example of nonpoint water pollution. Fig. 1-11, p. 14

Overexploiting Shared Renewable Resources: Tragedy of the Commons Three types of property or resource rights Private property Common property Open access renewable resources (COMMONS) Tragedy of the Commons: Common property and open- access renewable resources degraded from overuse

Ecological Footprints: A Model of Unsustainable Use of Resources Ecological footprint: the amount of biologically productive land and water needed to provide the people in a region with indefinite supply of renewable resources, and to absorb and recycle wastes and pollution Unsustainable if footprint is larger than biological capacity for replenishment

Patterns of Natural Resource Consumption Figure 1.12: Patterns of natural resource consumption: The top photo shows a family of five subsistence farmers with all their possessions. They live in the village of Shingkhey, Bhutan, in the Himalaya Mountains, which are sandwiched between China and India in South Asia. The bottom photo shows a typical U.S. family of four living in Pearland, Texas, with their possessions.

Natural Capital Use and Degradation Figure 1.13: Natural capital use and degradation. These graphs show the total and per capita ecological footprints of selected countries (top). In 2008, humanity’s total, or global, ecological footprint was at least 30% higher than the earth’s biological capacity (bottom) and is projected to be twice the planet’s biological capacity by around 2035. Question: If we are living beyond the earth’s renewable biological capacity, why do you think the human population and per capita resource consumption are still growing rapidly? (Data from Worldwide Fund for Nature, Global Footprint Network, Living Planet Report 2008. See www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFn/page/world_footprint/) Fig. 1-13, p. 16

The IPAT Environmental Impact Model The mathematical notation of a formula put forward to describe the impact of human activity on the environment. Equates human impact on the environment to the product of three factors: Population, Affluence, and Technology. I = Environmental impact P = Population A = Affluence T = Technology

IPAT Illustrated Figure 1.14: Connections: This simple model demonstrates how three factors—number of people, affluence (resource use per person), and technology—affect the environmental impact of populations in less-developed countries (top) and more-developed countries (bottom). Fig. 1-14, p. 17

Natural Systems Have Tipping Points Ecological tipping point: an often irreversible shift in the behavior of a natural system Environmental degradation has time delays between our actions now and the deleterious effects later Long-term climate change Over-fishing Species extinction

Tipping Point Figure 1.15: In this example of a tipping point, you can control the ball as you push it up to the tipping point. Beyond that point, you lose control. Ecological tipping points can threaten all or parts of the earth’s life-support system. Fig. 1-15, p. 19

Cultural Changes Have Increased Our Ecological Footprints 12,000 years ago: hunters and gatherers Three major cultural events Agricultural revolution Industrial-medical revolution Information-globalization revolution Current need for a sustainability revolution

Technology Increases Population Figure 1.16: Technological innovations have led to greater human control over the rest of nature and to an expanding human population. Fig. 1-16, p. 19

Experts Have Identified Four Basic Causes of Environmental Problems Population growth Wasteful and unsustainable resource use Poverty Failure to include the harmful environmental costs of goods and services in market prices

Exponential Growth of Human Population Figure 1.18: Exponential growth: The J-shaped curve represents past exponential world population growth, with projections to 2100 showing possible population stabilization as the J-shaped curve of growth changes to an S-shaped curve. (This figure is not to scale.) (Data from the World Bank and United Nations, 2008; photo L. Yong/UNEP/Peter Arnold, Inc.) Fig. 1-18, p. 21

Affluence Has Harmful and Beneficial Environmental Effects Harmful environmental impact due to High levels of consumption High levels of pollution Unnecessary waste of resources Affluence can provide funding for developing technologies to reduce Pollution Environmental degradation Resource waste

Poverty Has Harmful Environmental and Health Effects Population growth affected Malnutrition Premature death Limited access to adequate sanitation facilities and clean water

Harmful Effects of Poverty Figure 1.20: These are some of the harmful effects of poverty. Questions: Which two of these effects do you think are the most harmful? Why? (Data from United Nations, World Bank, and World Health Organization) Fig. 1-20, p. 22

Prices Do Not Include the Value of Natural Capital Companies do not pay the environmental cost of resource use Goods and services do not include the harmful environmental costs Companies receive tax breaks and subsidies Economy may be stimulated but there may be a degradation of natural capital

Different Views about Environmental Problems and Their Solutions Environmental ethics: what is right and wrong with how we treat the environment Planetary management worldview We are separate from and in charge of nature Stewardship worldview Manage earth for our benefit with ethical responsibility to be stewards Environmental wisdom worldview We are part of nature and must engage in sustainable use

Environmentally Sustainable Societies Protect Natural Capital and Live Off Its Income Environmentally sustainable society: meets current needs while ensuring that needs of future generations will be met Live on natural income of natural capital without diminishing the natural capital