Early Modern Chinese Vernacular Literature (Volume D)

Mongols, 1279 end of Yuan Dynasty Mongol invasion end of Chinese Confucian education end of traditional government recruitment practices use of vernacular The status of vernacular literature in China was, until recently, far below that of ancient and authoritative genres of classical poetry, prose, and tales. The last two dynasties of imperial China, the Ming and Qing, produced variety and sophistication at the same time that new literatures—not written in scholastic classical language but in everyday speech—were being written. This is connected to the political changes during the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), during which Mongol armies invaded and conquered. They did not embrace Chinese Confucian belief and instead suspended the traditional education system through which elite members had been recruited to government for dynasties. The link between classical literature, an education in the Confucian Classics, and government service was temporarily broken, and allowed for the introduction of vernacular writing. The image shows Mongol troops from the Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions (13th century).

Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) With the Ming Dynasty, the civil service examinations regained importance as a venue for a political career, and thus created a national culture of shared elite education, leading to a renewal of classical literature. An emergent urban bourgeoisie, increasingly literate and influential, provided an eager market for literature in the vernacular, the stories of which were rooted in oral performances that had already existed during the previous dynasties but now gained more complexity. The image shows the Jade Emperor. Ming Dynasty, 16th century.

Chuanqi It was during the Ming Dynasty that chuanqi (“records of marvels”) drama reached its high point. A form of romantic drama, performances often spread over several days and attracted sophisticated crowds. It was enjoyed as both a theater performance and literature to be read. Tang Xianzu and his Peony Pavilion were the most famous of the period. The last great play in this tradition is Shangren’s The Peach Blossom Fan (1699). The image shows Tang Xianzu, Ming poet and dramatist.

Chinese Variety Plays zaju (northern) chuanqi (southern) “tales of the marvelous” Ming Dynasty qu-pai stylization minimal scenery interwoven plots The Peach Blossom Fan belongs to the Chinese tradition of southern drama known as Kunqu Opera or chuanqi (“tales of the marvelous”), which was mostly prominent during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and adopted formally for theater with Liang Chenyu’s work Laundering the Silken Yarn in 1560. These long music–dance–word works consisted of between thirty to fifty acts, including chanted prose dialogue and sung arias (qu-pai); each word was accompanied by a gesture or stylized movement based on strict rules. The wording of Kunqu is an artificial language consisting of modified Mandarin blended with local dialect and meticulously set to musical melody. Ornate costumes and makeup, minimal scenery and props, and stylized dance were formal features, and the entire work was comprised of multiple plot lines that corresponded with and crossed each other (compare this to motif in Western opera). Image: Grave for playwright Kong Shangren in the Confucian Cemetery, Qufu.

Confucianism: The Peach Blossom Fan perfection through personal growth, communal experience righteousness, altruism, propriety attention to social order, loyalty respect for elders self-governance Confucian beliefs present throughout the play, particularly in the indoctrination of the “Way” (Tao), to actively strive for perfection. As an ethical system, Confucianism subscribes to the humanist belief that humans can be educated and perfected through personal growth and communal experience. Righteousness (yi), altruism (ren, the ethical practice of reciprocity), and propriety (li, rituals, customs and rites, also including education, music, and cultural etiquette) are emphasized, to the extent that a person is expected to sacrifice his life to uphold these morals. Social harmony is achieved only when individuals recognize their standing in the social order, by demonstrating loyalty, respecting elders, and receiving benevolence through mutuality; the focus on self-governance (one cannot govern others before governing oneself) is paramount.

Four Classics Water Margin (14th century) Romance of the Three Kingdoms (14th century) Journey to the West (16th century) The Story of the Stone (18th century) The Four Great Classical Chinese novels are Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, and The Story of the Stone. Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms were written in the fourteenth century, Journey to the West was written in the sixteenth century, and The Story of the Stone was written in the eighteenth century. Together, the novels tell of life in the Ming and Qing dynasties and are the most influential works of premodern Chinese literature. The debates about the interpretation of the Confucian Classics were one aspect of the complex presence of Confucianism in Qing society. Confucianism was a form of governance, a tool of civil service recruitment, a tradition of textual study and system of public morals and personal ethics that would guide all aspects of life. Its rigid demands for sociopolitical success and moral self-cultivation failed to address the complexities of human nature and pressures of living in a complex world, to the extent that its elite values were exposed as hypocrisy.

Wu Cheng’en: Journey to the West The Journey to the West (1592) had a historical basis in the journey of the monk Xuanzang, or Tripitaka (596–664), who traveled from China to India in search of Buddhist scriptures during the reign of Emperor Taizong, one of the most splendid emperors of the Tang Dynasty. At the time, travel to the Western territories was forbidden and Tripitaka could have faced arrest and execution. He returned seventeen years later under imperial patronage and spent the last twenty years of his life in the Tang capital of Chang’an, translating sutras and Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Chinese and writing a record of his experience during his travels. The image is a depiction of Xuanzang on his journey to India (ca.14th century). Tokyo National Museum.

Qing Dynasty In 1644, Manchu armies from the northeast descended into China and established the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Republican revolution of 1911. Qing intellectual culture rejected the radical individualism of the later Ming, when personal freedom had been celebrated at the expense of social responsibility. They approached the canon using an empiricism known as “evidential learning,” and treated sacred texts as historical documents. The image is from a caricature (September 1792) by James Gillray, in which Lord Macartney’s embassy to China is rejected because he fails to follow the proper etiquette for prostration.

Cao Xueqin: The Story of the Stone The focus on dreams is apparent in the novel’s alternate English translation of its title, Dream of the Red Chamber. It is also obvious in that the family name, “Jia,” is a homophone for a Chinese word meaning “false,” while “Zheng,” the name of another prominent family in the novel, is a homophone for “real.” The Zheng clan apparently was meant to be a mirror of the Jia clan and to have a more prominent role later in the novel, but this story was largely lost when Cao Xueqin died, leaving the novel unfinished. Given this context, the reader should pay attention to the interplay between the fantasy frame narrative and the realistic main narrative. The image is a painting from a series of brush paintings by the Qing Dynasty artist Sun Wen, depicting scenes from The Story of the Stone (19th century).

China from Ming to Qing The final two Chinese dynasties were the Ming (1368–1644) and the Qing (1644–1911). Particularly during the Ming period, the arts thrived, including literature, which enjoyed a period of great development in scope and sophistication. In part, literary variety increased because two languages were available to writers: classical, literary Chinese and vernacular Chinese. Often, literature of the period features a reworking of older tales, such as the famous historical romance, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The arrival of Manchu (non-Chinese) armies from the north ended the Ming Dynasty, however. As is depicted in this map, the Manchu territory steadily grew as Manchu control spread south into China (and eventually Korea). The Manchurian Qing Dynasty was perceived to be an invading power. It was not as open to literature and worked actively to censor writing at the time.

Test Your Knowledge During the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), ___________ . a. public life continued as it had in previous dynasties b. strict censorship laws were enacted c. classical literature lost its central place d. Confucianism governed political life Answer: C Section: The Mongols and the Rise of Vernacular Literature Feedback: During Mongol rule in the Yuan Dynasty, classical literature lost its central place in Chinese public life. Previously, Confucian teachings and classical texts formed an educational core for an elite group from which were chosen (by examination) those who served in the government. But this was not the case under Mongol rule.

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following is true of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)? a. classical literature became popular and vernacular literature almost disappeared b. vernacular literature gained popularity as classical literature continued to fade c. neither classical nor vernacular literature were prized d. classical literature and vernacular both grew in popularity Answer: D Section: Vernacular Literature of the Ming Dynasty: Plays, Stories, Novels Feedback: During the Ming Dynasty, the earlier Chinese system of educating an elite class with a grounding in classical texts as preparation for a political career reemerged. Thus, classical Chinese literature regained some of the importance it had once held in public life. This reemergence, however, occurred simultaneously with increasing interest in vernacular literature, especially in urban centers.

Test Your Knowledge Chuanqi translates roughly as _________ . a. records of marvels b. tales of the past c. ancient heroes d. operatic drama Answer: A Section: Vernacular Literature of the Ming Dynasty: Plays, Stories, Novels Feedback: Chuanqi drama, which reached its high point during the Ming Dynasty, translates roughly as “records of marvels.”

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following characterizes vernacular writers during the Ming period? a. They often elaborated on existing stories. b. They rarely wrote prose fiction. c. They placed great importance on originality. d. They had to write anonymously. Answer: A Section: Vernacular Literature of the Ming Dynasty: Plays, Stories, Novels Feedback: Often, writers of this period were not concerned to invent entirely new stories. They were just as likely to elaborate on existing stories, interweaving plots, and historical details with which readers might already have been familiar.

Test Your Knowledge Manchu armies that formed the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) were __________ . a. from north China b. from south China c. not from China d. from various Chinese prefectures Answer: C Section: Literature and the Intellectual Climate During the Qing Dynasty Feedback: Non-Chinese Manchu armies would form the Qing Dynasty, ruling from 1644 to 1911. Since the Qing Dynasty was non-Chinese, there was considerable resentment among the native Chinese population.

This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for The Norton Anthology Of World Literature