Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy Chapter 2: Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy Pages 28-49

DO NOW List the parts of the Scientific Method. Design an experiment, using all the parts of the scientific method, to test the relationship between nutrients in food and use of pesticide during growing. Work with your partners to come up with answers for the group 12/2/2018

AIM: How Can We Describe Science and the Scientific Method? Science as a Way of Knowing Most of this is a review for you but there are some twists and new ideas for you to latch on to. 12/2/2018

Learning Objectives Defining what is Science or What Makes something Scientific. Describe the parts of the Scientific Method and what assumptions does it make, if any? The difference between Science and Technology? 12/2/2018 4

Learning Objectives That thinking about environmental issues requires thinking scientifically Scientific knowledge is obtained through observations Scientific knowledge is not fixed but changes over time Understand the differences between Deductive vs. inductive reasoning 12/2/2018

Assumptions of Science Events in the natural world follow patterns that can be understood through careful observation and scientific analysis. The basic laws of nature were the same in the past as they are now and will be the same in the future The basic laws of nature are the same throughout the universe 12/2/2018

Science as Process Science is a process of discovery Often, scientific ideas change in small increments Sometimes, a science undergoes a fundamental revolution of ideas Scientific Method: Actually a set of methods which are the systematic methods by which scientists investigate natural phenomena Science is a process - a way of knowing. Not to be confused with the results- the beliefs. These change the process doesn't 12/2/2018

Hypothesis Educated guess – something we hope to prove or disprove by experimentation Discuss class assignment to write a hypothesis relating using pesticides and nutrients in food. What makes a hypothesis valid? And Why? 12/2/2018

Disprovability If you can think of a test that could disprove a statement (hypothesis), then that statement can be said to be scientific. If you can’t think of a test, then the statement is said to be nonscientific. This is a fundamental principle guiding science. If its non- scientific it is opinion. Science does not deal with good vs evil, or values. However, in E.S. In looking for solutions, values become very important. Because its not scientific does not mean that its not important or correct , we should not degrade those viewpoints.- Religious or cultural viewpoints are important – however, they all are based on beliefs 12/2/2018

The Nature of Scientific Proof Deductive reasoning: Drawing a conclusion form initial definitions and assumptions by means of logical reasoning. Observations and testing is not necessary (think Greek philosophers) From the general to the specific Inductive reasoning: Drawing a conclusion from a limited set of specific observations. From the specific to the general Deductive reasoning: Logical progression from premise to conclusion. The problem is that if the premise is false then the conclusion – even if logically true – is false. Deductive reasoning is very powerful and is what we encountered in math – geometry. However it does not require the premise to be true 12/2/2018

Premise: Only females are left handed Observation: Joe is left handed Deductive Statement Premise: Only females are left handed Observation: Joe is left handed Conclusion: Joe is female Problems with deductive analysis is if premise is false conclusion will be false 12/2/2018

Deductive vs. Inductive Deductive Reasoning I leave for work, at eight o’clock. Every day, the journey takes 45 minutes, and I arrive at work on time. If I leave for work at eight o’clock today, I will be on time. Inductive Reasoning Today, I left for work at eight o’clock, and was on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o’clock, I will arrive at work on time. http://www.experiment-resources.com/deductive- reasoning.html#ixzz0R89B9NSl What are the problems with each statement? The deductive statement is a perfectly logical statement, but does rely upon the initial premise being correct. Perhaps today, there are roadworks, so you will end up being late for work. This is why any hypothesis can never be completely proved, because there is always the scope for the initial premise to be wrong. Inductive reasoning, whilst commonly used in science, is not logically valid, because it is not strictly accurate to assume that a general principle is correct. In the above example, perhaps ‘today’ is a weekend, with less traffic. It is illogical to assume an entire premise, just because one specific data set seems to suggest it. This is not to say that inductive reasoning has no place in scientific processes, because it is an extremely useful tool. Even mathematicians use the process, to look at a specific phenomenon and assess the possibility that it is true in all cases. Deductive reasoning is then used to construct a logical and rigorous proof. There is, however, one major weakness in deductive reasoning, a trap into which a scientist should not fall. Deductive reasoning relies heavily upon the initial premise being correct. If this premise is incorrect, not only does it jeopardize the deductive reasoning, but the whole process of logic. Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/deductive-reasoning.html#ixzz0R89ZsjVm 12/2/2018

Scientific method Science is based on a type of reasoning known as induction (inductive) Generalizations can be subjected to tests that may disprove them. Although new evidence can disprove existing theories, science can never provide absolute proof of the truth of its theories. 12/2/2018

Steps of the Scientific Method Observe & Question nature Formulate a Hypothesis Design and conduct experiments and collect data Replication of experiments to confirm data Control group, where necessary . Why is it needed? Interpret data and draw conclusions If hypothesis is proved, then disseminate data. If hypothesis is not proved, reformulate hypothesis 12/2/2018

Observations, Facts, Inferences, and Hypotheses The basis of science, may be made through any of the five senses or by instruments that measure beyond what we can see. Inference: A generalization or interpretation that arises from a set of observations. Fact: When what is observed about a particular thing is agreed on by all or almost all. 12/2/2018

Flowchart and steps of the Scientific Method 12/2/2018 © 2008 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Observations, Facts, Inferences, and Hypotheses Dependent variable: A variable taken as the outcome of one or more variables. (Y axis) Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by the investigator; affects the dependent variable. ( x axis) For example: the rate at which a tree grows (dependent) based on the amount of fertilizer used (Independent variable) 12/2/2018

Measurements and Uncertainty Experimental errors: Measurement uncertainties and other errors that occur in experiments. Accuracy: The extent to which a measurement agrees with the accepted value Precision: The degree of exactness with which a quantity is measured i.e. how close the measurements are to each other 12/2/2018

Observations, Facts, Inferences, and Hypotheses Model: A deliberately simplified explanation of complex phenomena. Models are often physical Mathematical Pictorial or Computer-simulated 12/2/2018

Observations, Facts, Inferences, and Hypotheses Theories: Models that offer broad, fundamental explanations of many observations Scientific theory - a hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested and confirmed & has reached wide acceptance Natural Law- Theory that has been tested many times, has no exceptions, and has withstood the test of time. Law of Gravity Law of Thermodynamics Theories are items of high prestige in science. Not to be confused with the daily use of theory – as in “its just a theory. 12/2/2018

Science, Pseudoscience, and Frontier Science Some ideas presented as scientific are in fact not scientific, because they are untestable, lack empirical support, or are based on faulty reasoning or poor scientific methodology 12/2/2018

Enough to Get You Sick 12/2/2018

Science and Technology How are Science and Technology different? Or are they the same? Science – search for understanding of natural world Technology – control of natural world to benefit humans. Improved science leads to improved technology and improved technology leads to improved science 12/2/2018

Making Environmental Decisions Gather information – the facts Consider Values- personal and communal Explore Consequences- short term, long term, pro and con Make decision/recommendation Notice that to reach a decision or recommendation, values have to be considered 12/2/2018

Consequences & Values Issues  Note: The column headers shown are only for illustration purposes. Pick the column headers that are appropriate for the problem being addressed. Issues  Environ-mental Economic Issue 3 Issue 4 Issue 5 Short Term Pro Short Term Con Long Term Pro Long Term Con A typical table for evaluating E.S. problems. Note that the issues and the way the pro/con boxes are filled in are based on individual or community values 12/2/2018

Problem: Was Easter Island (Core Case Study pg. 28) a high throughput economy? In fact, it was a low throughput economy that proved to be unsustainable. This about how long we can sustain the world’s current high-throughput, high-waste societies. 12/2/2018