Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Chapter 1 Science, Society, and Criminological Research Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Topics to Cover Reasoning About the Social World The Social Science Approach Social Research Philosophies Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Specific Types of Research Methods Strengths and Limitations of Social Research Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Everyday Errors in Reasoning Overgeneralization Selective Observation Inaccurate Observation Illogical Reasoning Resistance to Change Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Overgeneralization What is true for one case is true in all cases Drawing conclusion from interactions with a limited number of people Can lead to stereotypes Example: An individual was treated poorly by a law enforcement officer and then assumes that all law enforcement treat citizens poorly Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Selective Observation Look at phenomena according to personal beliefs, regardless of fact Overgeneralization can lead to selective observation Example: In relation to the previous example, whenever that same individual sees a law enforcement officer engaging with a citizen he/she interprets the interaction as negative Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Inaccurate Observation See a phenomenon that did not occur or perceive it differently Perception involves interpretation Example: Eyewitness misidentification Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Illogical Reasoning Draw conclusions from invalid assumptions Assuming something is true if a majority of the time is it is not true Example: Poverty causes crime Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Resistance to Change New information fails to change attitudes Ego-based commitments Excessive devotion to tradition Uncritical agreement with authority Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Science Research Criminological and criminal justice research is an area of social science research: Science - a set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations Social Science - the use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Scientific Research Methods Reduce the likelihood of overgeneralization Reduce the risk of selective or inaccurate observation Avoid illogical reasoning Lessen the tendency to answer questions about the social world from ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, and/or unquestioning respect for authority Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Science versus Pseudoscience The scientific method represents an epistemology, a way of knowing based on objective, empirical investigation Transparency allows for replication of the study Peer review allows for the scientific merit of the study to be evaluated Pseudoscience is findings based on intuition, gut reactions, or personal experience Example: Phrenology Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Motives for Criminological Research Policy motivations Assess programs and policies to determine their success and develop ways to improve outcomes and better address problems Academic motivations Learn more about complex social phenomena to better understand crime and society’s response to it Personal motivations Improve society, solve a problem of personal interest Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Criminological Research in Practice Descriptive Define and describe, count Example: What is the magnitude of youth violence? Exploratory Gather more information on newly identified areas/concerns Example: How do schools respond to gun violence? Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Criminological Research in Practice Explanatory Cause and effect Example: What factors are related to youth delinquency and violence? Evaluation Effects of intervention Example: Do violence prevention programs in schools work? Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Research Philosophies: Positivism and Postpositivism An objective reality exists apart from perceptions (also called “empirical” reality) Goal of research is to study things in a way that helps discover or understand reality Postpositivism Empirical reality exists, but because of complexity of human behavior and associations, we may not be able to understand it completely Goal of research is to achieve intersubjective agreement because limitations in research techniques often prevent ability to perceive objective reality Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Positivist and Postpositivist: Research Guidelines Test ideas against empirical reality without becoming invested in the outcome Plan and execute research systematically Document all procedures and make them available to other researchers Clarify assumptions on which research is based Define all terms Maintain skepticism about current knowledge Replicate studies to build and refine theory Search for patterns in social behaviors or relationships Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Research Philosophies: Interpretivism and Constructivism No single empirical reality People have different understandings of situations Research should study how people perceive reality Participatory action research Researcher collaborates with some of the persons studied Develop valid definitions, bring unique insights, and desire change in the organization Constructivism Extends interpretivism to emphasize the importance of how different stakeholders construct their beliefs Utilize the hermeneutic circle approach to produce case report Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Social Research Philosophies: Feminist Research Research done by feminists Focus on women’s lives Includes the interpretivist and constructivist elements of concern with personal experience and subjective feelings Importance placed on sensitivity to the impact of social differences Researcher’s role as an “insider” or “outsider” to the social situation Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Interpretivist and Constructivist: Research Guidelines Identify stakeholders (people to whom the subject of the research is important) and ask them about their “claims, concerns, and issues” Share these claims, concerns, and issues with other stakeholder groups to obtain their perspectives Focus further investigation on areas of disagreement among stakeholder groups Work with stakeholder groups to attempt to reach consensus in areas of disagreement Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

An Integrated Philosophy Value to using both positivist and interpretivist philosophies Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Approaches to Research Quantitative Using numbers to describe social phenomena Count events Analyze information with statistical techniques Qualitative Written or spoken words with no direct numerical interpretation Interpretation of events observed as they occur Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Approaches to Research Mixed methods Using both qualitative and quantitative methods to study one research question Triangulation The combination of methods to answer a question Clearer picture of the social reality being studied Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Types of Research Methods Experimental approach True Experiment contains all three elements: Two groups Random assignment to group Assessment of change in the outcome variable after the treatment or policy has been received (post-test) Quasi Experiment Lack one of the three elements of a true experiment Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Types of Research Methods Surveys or questionnaires Asking people fixed-format questions Participant observation Developing a sustained relationship with people and observing them as they go about their normal activities Intensive interviewing Asking people in-depth information on feelings, experiences, and perceptions Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Types of Research Methods Secondary data Analyzing existing data Historical events research Analyzing documents from the past Content analysis Studying representations of the research topic Example: media and legal opinions Crime mapping Geo-spatial analysis of crime Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Strengths and Limitations of Social Research Studies are designed to reduce the errors common in everyday reasoning However, research always has some limitations and flaws and subject to differing interpretations Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc

Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc Discussion Give an example of three of the errors in human inquiry each from the field of criminal justice. If a social scientific approach was used in place of basic human inquiry, how might these errors be reduced? Give an example of a research question. Which of the four purposes for social scientific research do you believe your research questions falls under? Bachman 6e © 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc